aking  and  Exhibiting 


isin 


PERIODICAL  S 


~ 


Motion  Picture  Making 
and  Exhibiting 


A  comprehensive  volume  treating  the  principles  of 

motography;  the  making  of  motion  pictures; 

the  scenario;    the  motion  picture  theater; 

the   projector;  the  conduct  of   film 

exhibiting;  methods  of  coloring 

films;    talking  pictures,  etc. 


By 

John  B.  Rathbun 

Associate  Editor  Motography,  Chicago;  Instructor  of  Machine 

Design,  Chicago  Technical  College;  Author  of  technical 

books  specializing  va'rious  subjects. 


Published  by 

Charles  C.  Thompson  Company 

Chicago,   U.  S.  A. 

1914 


Special  Arrangement  with 
Electricity  Magazine  Corporation,  Chicago 


Motion  Picture  Making  and  Exhibiting 
Copyrighted    1914. 

Charles  C.  Thompson  Co. 


PREFACE. 

Within  a  little  more  than  ten  years,  the  motion 
picture  show  has  become  one  of  the  world's  most 
popular  forms  of  entertainment,  and,  from  a  commer- 
cial standpoint,  one  of  the  most  profitable.  In  the 
United  States  alone  there  are  over  15,000  theaters  that 
are  devoted  to  this  form  of  entertainment,  that  in 
turn  gives  employment  to  one  quarter  of  a  million 
people.  From  the  little  "store  show"  of  ten  years  ago, 
that  eked  out  an  existence  with  the  aid  of  a  shooting 
gallery  and  tin  type  department,  the  modern  picture 
theater  rivals  the  largest  of  "legitimate"  theaters,  both 
in  attendance  and  equipment. 

Aside  from  its  prominence  as  amusement  feature, 
the  motion  picture  fills  a  place  that  has  never  been 
reached  by  the  theater;  that  is,  its  ability  to  instruct 
as  well  as  entertain.  Its  extended  use  in  educational 
institutions,  and  in  the  proceedings  of  learned  societies 
has  proved  its  value  as  an  instructor  for  it  presents 
the  most  abstruse  and  difficult  subjects  in  a  way  that 
appeals  to  the  most  indifferent  mind.  It  has  unfolded 
the  beauties  of  literature  to  those  who  have  lacked 
the  inclination  to  read  for  themselves,  and  has  taken 
the  student  through  faraway  lands  that  he  could  never 
have  witnessed  otherwise.  Little  wonder  that  the 
pictures  have  become  an  established  institution 
among  all  classes  of  people. 

The  great  interest  aroused  among  both  show 
patrons  and  prospective  exhibitors  in  regard  to  the 
principles  and  practice  of  motion  picture  making  and 
exhibiting  has  been  responsible  for  the  publication 
of  this  little  book.  Following  the  general  treatment  of 
the  subject  will  be  found  data  that  will  be  of  use  to  the 
operator  and  present  exhibitor.  This  was  compiled 
from  the  files  of  the  trade  journal  "MOTOGRAPHY" 
which  extend  over  a  period  of  five  years. 

It  has  been  the  endeavor  of  the  author  to  lead 
the  reader  through  the  subject  in  a  systematic  man- 


ner,  starting  with  elementary  principles  of  motion 
photography,  through  the  process  of  taking  and  mak- 
ing the  picture,  and  finishing  with  the  projection  of 
the  completed  picture  on  the  screen.  The  chapters 
devoted  to  the  taking  of  the  pictures,  a  subject  prob- 
ably of  most  interest  to  the  lay  mind,  have  been  made 
as  complete  as  possible  and  are  illustrated  by  views 
taken  around  the  studios  of  well  known  film  pro- 
ducers. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 
Chapter  I 1-28 

The  Principles  of  Motography — The  Zoetrope — The 
Experiments  of  Muybridge — The  Celluloid  Film — 
Edison's  Kinetoscope — The  Modern  Projector — The 
Optical  System — The  Motion  Head — The  Shutter — 
Intermittent  Movements — The  Film  Gate — The  Safety 
Shutter — Feed  and  Take-up  Reels — Rewinding  the 
Film — The  Screen. 

Chapter  II 29-49 

Making  the  Picture — Film  and  Film  Dimensions — Manu- 
facture of  Celluloid  Film — Development  of  the  Nega- 
tive— Printing  the  Positive — Tinted  Films — Incombus- 
tible Film — Waterproof  Film. 

Chapter  III 50-83 

Taking  the  Picture — The  Classification  of  Films — The 
Producer — The  Players — Taking  Studio  Pictures — 
Yard  Pictures — Taking  Topical  Films — Pictures  in 
the  Field — Trick  Pictures. 

Chapter  IV 84-95 

The  Scenario — Writing  the  Scenario — Correct  Scenario 
Form — Selling  the  Scenario. 

Chapter   V 96-120 

The  Theater— Starting  the  Theater— The  Airdome— The 
Program — Advertising  the  Show — The  Ticket  Office — 
Profitable  Side  Lines. 

Chapter  VI 121-191 

The  Projector — The  Optical  System — The  Condenser 
Lens — The  Objective  Lens — Lens  Calculations — Ad- 
justable Lenses — Matched  Lenses — Focusing  the  Pic- 
ture— Lamp  Adjustment  in  Regard  to  the  Laws — Care 
of  Lenses — Source  of  Light — The  Electric  Arc — 
Reducing  and  Rectifying  the  Current — Emergency 
Rheostat — Alternating  Current  Regulation — Trans- 
formers— Reactance  Coils — Motor  Generators — Mer- 
cury Vapor  Rectifiers — Carbons  and  Their  Care — 
Carbons  for  Continuous  Current — Carbons  for  Alter- 
nating Current — Wiring  Regulators — The  Circuit — 
Wiring  the  Booth — The  Film — Dry  Film — Leaders — 
Patching  the  Film — Jumping  and  Swaying  Film — The 


Motion  Head — Fire  Rollers — Care  of  the  Upper  Feed 
Sprocket — The  Intermittent  Sprocket — Care  of  the 
Gate  and  Tension  Springs — The  Take-up — The  Shut- 
ter— Starting  the  Projection — Rewinders — Stereopti- 
cons  and  Song  Slides — Announcement  Slides — Private 
Lighting  Plants — The  Operator's  Booth — Bells  and 
Buzzers — Connecting  the  Batteries — Connecting  the 
Push  Buttons — Connecting  the  Signal  Wires — Adding 
A  Bell — The  Diagram — Special  Conditions — One  Bell 
from  Several  Buttons — Adding  a  Button  to  System — 
Two  Bells  from  One  Button — The  Problem  of  Long 
Lines — A  Booster  Cell  for  Long  Lines — The  Battery 
for  the  Line  Wiring. 

Chapter  VII 192-210 

Conduct  of  the  Show — New  Jersey  Booth  Laws — Detroit 
Censorship  Laws — Censorship  in  Milwaukee — Pro- 
jector Regulations — Ventilation — Ventilating  Fans — 
Wall  Fans — Exhausters. 

Chapter  VIII 211-236 

Principal  Methods  of  Coloring  Films — Pathe's  Stencil  Col- 
oring Method — Composition  of  Sight — Separation  by 
Reflection — Separation  by  Refraction — Color  Separa- 
tion by  Transmission — Difficulties  of  Color  Photog- 
raphy —  Friese-Green  Process  —  Kinemacolor  —  Gau- 
mont's  Chronochrome — Production  of  Color  in  Still 
Pictures — Starch  Granule  Photography — Colored  Rul- 
ing— Triple  Emulsion — Colors  by  Refraction — Stere- 
oscopic Pictures — Talking  Pictures — Synchronizing 
Methods  in  General — Manual  or  Dial  Regulated  Ma- 
chines— Gaumont  Talking  Pictures. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  MOTOGRAPHY. 

The  conception  of  motion  is  purely  a  comparative 
process.  When  a  person  views  an  object  in  uniform 
motion,  he  really  makes  note  of  the  successive  posi- 
tions of  the  object  in  regard  to  some  fixed  or  station- 
ary point  in  the  scene.  Because  of  the  rapidity  with 
which  he  makes  these  comparisons,  he  has  no  remem- 
brance of  any  particular  position  and  therefore  the  in- 
dividual impressions  gradually  fade  into  one,  giving  him 
an  idea  of  continuous  progress.  The  fixed  point  that  is 
used  for  the  comparisons  may  either  be  an  object  in  the 
scene  or  the  limiting  edges  of  his  field  of  view.  If  he 
observes  a  simple  moving  object  such  as  a  ball,  against 
a  blank  background,  and  followed  it  in  such  a  way  that 
it  always  occupied  the  center  of  his  line  of  sight,  he 
would  receive  no  idea  of  motion.  If  a  stationary  post 
were  placed  behind  the  moving  ball,  he  would  at  once 
unconsciously  start  measuring  its  successive  positions  in 
regard  to  the  post. 

When  a  single  snap-shot  photograph  is  taken  of  an 
object  in  motion,  the  picture  will  reveal  the  attitude  and 
position  of  the  object  at  the  instant  of  exposure.  If  a 
second  picture  were  taken  immediately  after  the  first,  it 
would  show  the  position  at  the  second  instant,  and  so  on. 
If  a  series  of  such  pictures  were  examined,  one  after  the 
other  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  progress  of  the  object 
would  be  seen,  but  without  any  suggestion  of  motion. 

Should  the  series  of  pictures  be  presented  to  view 
so  rapidly,  that  the  eye  would  not  have  time  to  view  and 
analyze  each  of  the  pictures  separately,  the  conditions 
mentioned  in  the  first  paragraph  would  be  reproduced, 
resulting  in  the  sensation  of  motion.  This  illusion  de- 
pends principally  on  what  is  known  as  "persistence  of 
vision,"  or  in  other  words,  upon  the  time  required  for 
the  optic  nerve  to  transmit  a  visual  message  from  the  eye 


MOTION    PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 


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Fig.    1. — Six  successive  views  of  a  ball   passing  across  a  picture.     The  ref- 
erence line  occupies  the  same  position  on  each  picture'. 

to  the  brain.  This  delay  in  the  transmission  of  the  image 
results  in  a  continued  impression,  equal  in  length,  to  the 
time  required  to  pass  from  the  retina  to  the  brain.  Thus 
the  brain  continues  or  "persists"  in  seeing  an  object  after 
it  has  passed  entirely  out  of  the  field  of  view. 

While  this  time  is  only  1/24  of  a  second  in  the  aver- 
age person,  it  is  long  enough  to  allow  a  machine  to  sub- 
stitute a  second  picture  while  the  brain  is  still  recording 
the  first.  As  the  sensation  of  the  first  view  fades  away 
it  is  immediately  succeeded  by  the  second  without  a  per- 
ceptible lapse  of  time,  giving  the  impression  of  a  single 
picture.  As  the  first  picture  becomes  fainter,  the  second 
continues  to  increase  in  brightness,  and  finally  obliterates 
all  previous  positions  of  the  object.  A  common  example 
of  this  property  of  visual  persistence  may  be  had  in  view- 


— 10— 


—  la- 


Fig.  2. — Twelve  successive  attitudes  of  a  horse  taken  by  Muybridge.  When 
passed  rapidly  before  the  eyes  the  pictures  give  the  impression  of 
motion. 


MOTION   PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING  3 

ing  a  flash  of  lightning.  To  the  observer,  the  flash  ap- 
pears to  last  1/24  of  a  second,  or  more,  while  the  flash 
actually  lasted  less  than  .0001  second. 

In  motion  picture  work  advantage  is  taken  of  this 
property  of  sight,  the  successive  pictures  being  thrown 
on  the  screen  so  rapidly  that  the  eye  construes  the  succes- 
sion as  continuous  motion.  When  the  shutter  of  the 
projector  is  opened  for  about  1/32  of  a  second,  the  im- 
pression is  started.  This  view  is  now  shut  off  quickly, 
and  a  second  view  is  moved  into  the  field  of  the  lens 


Fig.   3. — An   early  type  of  disc   machine.     The  pictures  are  illuminated   in 
succession  by  a  narrow  beam  of  light. 

which  in  turn  is  thrown  on  the  screen  before  the  impres- 
sion of  the  first  has  died  away.  In  practice  this  operation 
is  repeated  at  the  rate  of  sixteen  pictures  per  second. 
The  illusion  is  greatly  accentuated  by  the  stationary 
objects  in  the  picture  and  by  the  edge  of  the  screen  which 
has  a  fixed  relation  in  regard  to  the  spectator. 

The  twelve  pictures  shown  by  Fig.  2  illustrate  the 
principles  of  the  motion  picture,  each  picture  in  the 
figure  showing  the  position  assumed  by  the  horse  at  the 
particular  instant  at  which  the  picture  was  taken.  They 
are  reproductions  of  a  series  of  instantaneous  photo- 
graphs taken  by  Edward  Muybridge  in  1870,  and  are 
considered  to  be  the  first  motion  pictures  ever  taken  of 
a  living  subject  by  photographic  methods.  When  passed 


4  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 

rapidly  and  intermittently  before  the  eye  in  their  proper 
order,  the  horse  moves  its  legs  in  a  life  like  manner  and 
the  jockey  bounces  up  and  down  on  its  back. 


THE  ZOETROPE. 


The  little  "whirligig,"  known  as  the  "Zoetrope,"  was 
the  first  motion  picture  machine  to  be  placed  on  the 
market,  and  dates  from  a  period  previous  to  1850.  It 
was  originally  intended  as  a  toy  for  children,  and  prob- 
ably for  this  reason  did  not  awaken  much  interest  in  the 


F'g-  4. — Toy  Zoetrope,  showing  the  arrangement  of  the  pictures  and  slots. 

possibilities  of  the  moving  picture  at  the  time  of  its  in- 
ception. The  little  device  contains  all  of  the  parts  char- 
acteristic of  the  modern  projectors,  or  their  equivalent, 
and  performs  the  cycle  of  operations  in  the  same  way 
and  sequence  described  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs. 

It  consists  of  a  hollow  pasteboard  cylinder  mount- 
ed on  a  vertical  spindle  on  which  it  can  be  rotated  rapidly 
in  a  horizontal  plane.  Equally  spaced  vertical  slots  are 
cut  in  the  side  of  the  pasteboard  cylinder  which  extend 
to  a  point  about  half  way  from  the  bottom.  The  pictures, 
which  are  printed  on  strips  of  cardboard,  are  merely 
outline  drawings  showing  simple  objects  in  ten  or  twelve 
successive  positions,  and  are  spaced  to  correspond  with 
the  spacing  of  the  slots  in  the  side  of  the  box.  The  pic- 
ture strips  are  placed  inside  and  near  the  bottom  of  the 
box  with  the  picture  side  of  the  strips  facing  the  interior 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING  5 

so  that  they  can  be  viewed  by  looking  through  the  slots 
from  the  outside  of  the  cylinder. 

When  the  Zoetrope  is  revolved  rapidly,  the  slots  and 
wall  spaces  alternately  expose  a  picture  to  view  and  cut  it 
off  in  the  same  way  that  the  shutter  of  a  modern  projec- 
tor acts  on  a  film,  so  that  the  observer  receives  the  im- 
pression of  motion  from  the  succession  of  pictures.  As 
the  pictures  and  slots  advance  in  opposite  directions,  be- 
ing on  opposite  sides  of  the  cylinder,  the  action  of  the 
slots  is  very  rapid,  the  cutting  speed  being  twice  that  of 
the  peripheral  speed  of  the  box. 

THE  EXPERIMENTS  OF  MUYBRIDGE. 

The  progress  of  the  motion  picture  was  hampered  at 
all  stages  of  its  history  by  the  lack  of  suitable  photograpic 
materials,  and  it  was  not  until  1870  that  dry  plates  could 
be  obtained  that  were  fast  enough  to  record  exposures 
of  less  than  1/20  of  a  second.  The  cameras  of  that  time 
were  naturally  not  adapted  for  the  rapid  transfer  of  the 
exposed  and  unexposed  plates,  and  consequently  the  de- 
sign of  the  camera  required  complete  revision  before 
it  could  be  used  for  motion  pictures. 

In  1870,  an  Englishman,  Edward  Muybridge,  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  taking  a  series  of  photographs  of 
moving  objects  by  means  of  a  number  of  independent 
cameras,  spaced  equally  along  the  path  of  motion.  The 
shutters  of  the  cameras  were  to  be  arranged  so  that  the 
subject  made  the  exposure  by  contact  with  the  shutter 
triggers  as  it  passed  in  front  of  the  lens.  Muybridge 
finally  succeeded  in  interesting  Governor  Stanford  of 
California,  who  financed  the  proceeding,  principally  we 
judge,  because  of  the  opportunity  that  the  pictures  of- 
fered in  studying  the  action  of  his  race  horses.  The  re- 
sult of  his  work  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

On  one  side  of  Stanford's  exercise  track,  Muybridge 
erected  a  white-washed  high  board  fence  for  the  pur- 
pose of  throwing  the  horse  in  brilliant  silhouette,  for 
with  the  dry  plates  of  that  day  it  was  useless  to  attempt 
detail  with  the  short  exposures  that  he  intended  to  use. 
Across  the  track,  and  opposite  to  the  fence,  were  placed 
twenty-four  separate  cameras,  spaced  at  equal  intervals. 
A  string  from  the  shutter  of  each  camera  was  stretched 
across  the  track  to  the  fence  so  that  the  horse  would 


6 


MOTION   PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 


strike  each  string  in  passing  and  thus  snap  the  shutter 
when  it  was  exactly  in  front  of  the  lens.  The  horse 
in  passing  was  thus  photographed  twenty-four  times. 

As  the  pictures  were  taken  primarily  for  the  pur- 
pose of  studying  the  attitudes  of  the  horse  in  the  different 
stages  of  its  progress,  the  fence  was  divided  into  panels 
equal  in  width  to  the  spacing  of  the  cameras.  Each  panel 
was  numbered  so  that  the  pictures  could  be  identified  in 
regard  to  the  positions  of  the  horse.  These  pictures 


Fig.  4-a. — A  double  disc  machine.  One  disc  contains  the  pictures,  and  the 
other  the  slots.  As  the  discs  revolve  in  opposite  directions,  the  action 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  Zoetrope. 

created  considerable  comment  at  the  time,  particularly 
among  artists,  in  regard  to  the  unsuspected  muscular 
action  and  attitudes  of  the  trotting  horse,  and  settled 
conclusively  all  disputes  arising  from  the  criticisms  of 
Remington's  and  Messonier's  paintings. 

The  pictures  were  afterwards  projected  on  a  screen 
by  means  of  a  modified  zoetrope  wheel,  whereupon  the 
peculiar  positions  were  resolved  into  the  natural  and 
continuous  motion  of  the  animal.  These  pictures,  while 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING  7 

successful  in  delineating  the  motions  of  the  limbs  and 
muscles,  had  a  very  serious  fault  which  was  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  image  of  the  horse  did  not  progress  across 
and  pass  off  the  screen,  but  remained  prancing  up  and 
down  in  the  center  of  the  picture.  This  was  the  result 
of  taking  the  individual  pictures  at  the  time  when  the 
horse  was  exactly  in  front  of  the  cameras  instead  of 
from  a  single  stationary  view  point  as  with  the  modern 
motion  camera.  An  effect  similar  to  that  of  the  Muy- 
bridge  pictures  would  be  obtained  by  following  the  horse 
with  a  camera  in  an  automobile. 

While  these  experiments  paved  the  way  to  future 
success,  the  Muybridge  system  was  out  of  the  question 
for  practical  work,  for  not  only  were  the  pictures  all 
broadside  views,  but  16,000  cameras  would  be  required 
for  a  commercial  1,000- foot  reel. 

THE    CELLULOID    FILM. 

The  invention  of  the. celluloid  film  by  Eastman  was 
really  the  greatest  single  step  in  the  development  of  the 
motion-picture  machine,  for  the  chief  trouble  experi- 
enced by  the  earlier  experimenters  was  due -to  the  awk- 
ward and  complicated  mechanism  used  to  shift  the  in- 
flexible and  fragile  glass  plates.  In  addition  to  the 
mechanical  troubles,  the  enormous  bulk  of  the  dry  plates 
made  the  continuous  operation  of  the  machine  almost 
impossible,  and  required  in  addition  a  considerable 
amount  of  storage  room.  The  flexible  celluloid  film  in- 
troduced by  Eastman  made  it  a  simple  matter  to  feed 
a  great  number  of  pictures  at  an  exactly  uniform  speed, 
and  also  made  it  possible  to  store  a  large  number  of 
photographs  in  a  small  space. 

In  the  modern  film  the  16,000  photographs  on  1,000 
feet  of  film  makes  a  roll  only  10  inches  in  diameter  and 
\y%  inches  thick.  To  accommodate  the  same  number 
of  photographs  on  a  glass  dry  plate  would  require  an 
area  of  approximately  82  square  feet,  which,  when  put 
into  practical  use  in  a  single  plate,  would  make  a  strip 
one  foot  wide  and  82  feet  long.  Subdividing  the  glass 
into  82  plates  of  one  square  foot  area  would  require 
a  very  complicated  mechanism  and  careful  manipulation 
to  secure  the  perfect  centering  of  all  the  plates  in  the 
projector. 


8 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 


As  soon  as  the  celluloid  film  appeared  upon  the  mar- 
ket, the  principal  difficulties  in  building  a  machine  were 
removed  and  work  was  started  immediately  by  Edison 


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Fig.  4-b. — A  series  of 
machine 


The 


-•-"•—-»  i)^..^o  ui  motion  pictures  arranged  on  a  glass  dry  plate.  ±IK 

machine    projecting   these    pictures   moves   the  plate  up  and   down  and 

shifts  from  one  row  to  the  next  as  soon  as  the  last  picture  in  the  row 
is  projected. 

on  his  "Kinetoscope."     This  was  the  first  commercial 
machine  to  employ  photographs  in  a  continuous  strip. 

In   the  Kinetoscope   and   in  modern  machines  the 
film  is  in  the  form  of  a  long  strip.    The  individual  pho- 


MOTION    PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING  9 

tographs  run  down  the  center  of  the  celluloid  ribbon, 
edge  to  edge,  the  top  of  one  picture  coming  directly  on 
the  bottom  edge  of  the  other.  The  strip  is  run  through 
the  projector  in  front  of  the  lens  like  a  belt  and  as  soon 
as  each  picture  is  centered  in  the  correct  position  by  the 
driving  mechanism,  a  flash  of  light  is  sent  through  the 
transparency,  projecting  the  picture  on  the  screen.  As 
the  position  of  the  moving  object  of  the  film  varies 


Fig.  4-c. — A  modern  celluloid 
film,  showing  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  pictures  and 
the  sprocket  holes,  full  'size. 


Fig.  4-d. — A  full  sized  reproduction  of 
the  original  biograph  film.  This 
film  is  much  larger  than  those  in 
use  today  and  has  a  very  crude 
form  of  perforation. 


slightly  on  each  picture,  the  rapid  succession  of  pictures 
thrown  gives  the  spectator  the  impression  of  motion. 


EDISON  S    KINETOSCOPE. 


While  Edison  had  done  a  considerable  amount  of 
work  in  developing  the  motion-picture  machine  before 
the  advent  of  the  celluloid  film,  he  realized  that  a  com- 
mercial success  was  impossible  with  glass  plates,  and 


10 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 


therefore  delayed  serious  work  on  the  problem  until  the 
celluloid  film  was  announced  as  a  success  in  the  ordinary 
photographic  processes.  Shortly  after  this,  his  first  ma- 
chine the  "Kinetoscope,"  made  its  appearance  at  the 
Chicago  World's  Fair  in  1893. 

The  original  Kinetoscope  did  not  project  the  pic- 
tures on  a  screen,  but  exhibited  them  directly  through  a 
magnifying  glass  arranged  in  a  peep  hole  in  the  side  of 
the  cabinet  containing  the  mechanism.  On  dropping  a 
coin  into  the  slot,  the  lights  were  turned  on  automatically, 
and  the  observer  at  the  peep  hole  saw  a  simple  series 
of  pictures  that  ran  about  thirty  seconds.  The  pictures 
ran  with  such  rapidity  that  they  appeared  in  the  most  life- 
like manner  to  the  wondering  spectator,  but  as  the  show 


Fig.  5. — The  optical  system  of  the  motion  picture  projector. 


was  short  and  represented  little  more  than  the  old,  well- 
known  zoetrope,  they  did  not  arouse  much  enthusiasm. 

The  Kinetoscope  contained  about  40  feet  of  film 
in  the  form  of  a  continuous  band  or  belt.  The  band  was 
wound  around  four  or  five  sets  of  pulleys  in  parallel 
strands,  so  that  the  film  could  be  placed  in  a  small 
portable  cabinet.  At  the  top  of  the'Kinetoscope  the  film 
was  taken  over  two  large  wheels  in  a  horizontal  direc- 
tion, and  was  passed  between  a  magnifying  glass  and  a 
small  incandescent  light  so  that  the  images  on  the  film 
could  be  seen  through  the  glass.  A  circular  rotating 
disc  having  a  radial  slot  was  placed  in  front  of  the  mag- 
nifying glass,  and  was  arranged  so  that  the  positions  of 
the  slot  and  a  picture  registered  when  the  picture  was  in 
the  proper  position  in  regard  to  the  spectator.  When 
the  picture  was  either  approaching  or  receding  from  the 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 


11 


field  of  the  lens,  it  was  covered  by  the  solid  sector  of  the 
disc. 

This  shutter  rotated  continuously  in  a  direction  op- 
posite to  that  of  the  film,  and  made  one  complete  revo- 
lution during  the  time  taken  to  pass  each  picture  across 
the  field.  The  film  traveled  continuously  in  a  fixed  rela- 
tion to  the  position  of  the  slot  in  the  shutter,  this  rela- 
tion being  maintained  by  a  set  of  sprocket  wheels  whose 
teeth  engaged  with  perforations  in  the  edge  of  the  film. 
By  means  of  gears  the  film  and  revolving  shutter  were 
driven  as  one  unit. 

The  Kinetoscope  differed  from  the  machine  of  today 
in  having  a  continuously  moving  film  instead  of  the  inter- 


Fig.   6. — The  lamp  house,   showing  the 
lamp   and   condenser   lens. 


Fig.     9. — The    disc    shutter. 
Three  blades. 


mittent  movement  used  in  the  modern  machine  which 
stops  the  film  momentarily  when  an  image  comes  between 
the  lens  and  the  light.  The  intermittent  feed  was  found 
necessary  in  the  projector  for  the  reason  that  the  high 
speed  of  the  shutter  in  the  continuous  machine  did  not 
permit  of  sufficient  illumination  to  project  a  strong, 
bright  image  on  the  screen. 

In  its  optical  system  or  arrangement  of  the  lenses 
and  light,  the  moving  picture  machine  greatly  resembles 
the  magic  lantern,  or  stereopticon.  Like  the  stere- 
opticon,  the  projector  has  a  small  cabinet  called  the 
"lamp  house"  which  contains  the  light,  a  condensing  lens 
that  concentrates  the  light  upon  the  small  area  of  the 


12  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 

picture,  and  an  objective  lens  that  receives  the  impres- 
sion of  the  illuminated  image  on  the  film  and  projects  it 
upon  the  screen.  These  three  elements  exist  in  both 
machines,  and  are  arranged  in  the  same  relation. 

The  film  feeding  mechanism,  which  is  independent 
of  the  optical  system,  brings  forward  a  small  length  of 
the  film,  equal  in  length  to  the  height  of  the  picture,  and 
holds  it  firmly  in  position  while  the  light  is  being  admitted 
by  the  shutter.  After  the  picture  has  been  shown  for  a 
sufficient  length  of  time,  and  after  the  shutter  is  again 
closed,  another  length  of  film  is  fed,  and  so  on.  It  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  the  pictures  be  held  in  exactly 
the  same  place  on  the  screen,  so  that  the  stationary  por- 
tions will  fall  exactly  in  the  same  place.  If  there  is 
the  slightest  variation  in  this  respect  the  pictures  will 
jump,  or  flutter  rapidly,  as  the  film  passes  through  the 
gate,  causing  a  very  disagreeable  effect  in  the  eyes  of  the 
spectator. 

This  requires  a  very  accurate  mechanical  movement, 
for  a  variation  of  1/100  of  an  inch  in  the  position  of  the 
film  will  cause  a  movement  perhaps  240  times  as  great  on 
the  screen,  or  will  cause  the  image  to  vary  by  2.4  inches 
in  position.  After  being  pulled  into  the  exact  posi- 
tion, the  film  must  be  held  so  rigidly  that  no  vibration 
will  affect  its  centering.  The  device  that  turns  on  and  cuts 
off  the  light  must  be  so  adjusted  that  no  light  passes 
through  the  film  except  when  it  is  stationary  in  the  gate. 

In  all  commercial  machines,  the  relation  between 
the  feeding  mechanism  and  the  film  is  maintained  by  the 
sprocket  teeth  of  the  driving  gear  and  the  perforations 
on  the  edge  of  the  film,  each  perforation  occupying  a 
definite  position  in  regard  to  the  pictures.  When  the 
film  is  placed  in  mesh  with  the  sprockets  and  one  picture 
is  in  the  correct  position  when  the  shutter  opens,  it  is 
evident  that  each  successive  picture  will  come  to  rest  at 
the  same  place  with  an  equal  turning  movement  of  the 
feeding  sprocket,  as  the  perforations  are  equally  spaced. 
As  the  shutter  revolves  at  a  fixed  ratio  with  the  sprockets, 
each  picture  will  be  exposed  in  the  gate,  when  exactly 
central  with  the  screen. 

While  it  may  seem  a  simple  matter  to  devise  a 
machine  to  perform  this  operation,  it  is  really  quite 
difficult,  as  the  slightest  error  in  the  feed  will  be  greatly 


MOTION    PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 


13 


magnified  on  the  screen.  Any  wear  of  the  parts  caus- 
ing lost  motion,  or  any  lack  of  adjustment  will  cause 
serious  flickering  due  to  uncertainty  of  the  film  position. 
Many  years  of  experiment  were  necessary  before  the  cor- 
rect materials  were  found  to  resist  the  enormous  wear 
and  tear  of  the  moving  parts,  and  before  the  design  was 
worked  out  so  that  the  proper  adjustments  could  be  made. 
The  improvement  made  in  projectors  during  the  last  few 


Fig.  7. — Diagrammatic  view  of  the  components  of  the  motion  head,  show- 
ing the  position  of  the  disc  shutter. 

years  in  respect  to  jumping  and  flickering  is  evident  to 
anyone  who  has  long  been  a  patron  of  the  motion  picture 
show. 

THE    OPTICAL   SYSTEM. 

By  the  term  "optical  system"  we  mean  the  parts  of 
the  projector  that  generate  the  light  and  project  the 
image  on  the  screen,  the  lamp,  the  condenser  lens,  the 
film,  the  objective  lens,  and  the  screen  are  the  principal 
parts  of  this  system.  In  Fig.  5,  the  lamp  L,  and  the  con- 


14 


MOTION    PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 


denser  C  are  contained  in  the  cabinet  or  lamp  house 
//.  The  condenser  lens  C  receives  the  widely  dispersed 
light  rays  given  by  the  lamp  L,  and  concentrates  them 
in  a  small  area  on  the  film  F,  greatly  increasing  the  bril- 
liancy of  the  illumination  on  the  film.  The  rays  that 
formerly  occupied  the  entire  area  of  the  condenser  are 
now  reduced  to  a  diameter  equal  to  the  arrow  B,  and 
since  the  same  amount  of  light  now  occupies  a  much 
smaller  area,  the  intensity  or  brightness  is  greatly  in- 
creased. 

As  the  converging  rays  pass  through  the  transparent 
film  F,  they  are  broken  up  by  the  image  on  the  surface, 
the  darker  parts  of  the  image  obstructing  more  light  than 


C 


Fig.   8. — The  barrel  type   shutter. 

the  more  transparent  portions  and  as  a  result,  cause  the 
values  of  the  different  portions  to  be  recorded  on  the 
screen  in  proportion  to  their  density.  If  the  arrow  B  on 
the  film,  for  example,  were  perfectly  black,  it  would 
obstruct  all  of  the  light  in  its  path  so  that  its  shadow 
would  be  produced  at  D,  on  the  screen.  In  the  same  way 
the  outlines  of  the  lighter  objects  on  the  same  film 
would  be  shown  in  proportion  to  their  density. 

In  passing  from  the  film  to  the  objective  lens  P, 
the  converging  lines  of  light  cross  the  optical  center 
line  (X-X)  at  a  point  midway  between  the  two  lenses 
that  form  the  objective  P.  From  the  point  of  intersec- 
tion, the  lines  of  light  again  spread  out  or  diverge,  but 
in  such  a  way  that  the  lines  that  were  formerly  at  the 


MOTION   PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING  15 

top  of  the  image  on  the  film  are  now  thrown  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  screen.  The  reason  of  the  inversion  of  the 
image  on  the  film  will  be  seen  if  the  line  reaching  from 
the  top  of  the  arrow  B  is  followed  to  the  bottom  of  the 
screen,  and  the  lower  end  of  the  arrow  D.  Since  the 
angle  of  the  light  rays  reaching  from  B  to  the  center 
of  P  is  the  same  as  that  reaching  from  P  to  D  it  is  evident 
that  D  is  as  much  larger  than  P  as  it  is  farther  from  the 
point  of  intersection.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  center  of 
the  condenser  is  on  the  same  center  line  as  the  center  of 
the  objective  lens. 

It  is  evident  that  the  film  must  stop  centrally  on  the 
center  line  of  the  lens  X-X  if  the  image  is  to  be  equally 
distributed  on  the  screen  S,  without  distortion.  The  film 
mechanism  is  arranged  so  that  each  picture  is  centered 
on  the  optical  center  line  at  the  moment  that  the  shutter 
is  opened.  To  prevent  light  from  passing  around  the 
edges  of  the  picture  on  the  film  and  to  steady  the  film,  a 
small  plate  with  an  opening  equal  to  the  size  of  the  pic- 
ture is  placed  centrally  on  the  line  X-X  at  G.  This  is 
known  as  the  film  "gate." 

As  the  area  of  the  condenser  lens  is  much  less  than 
the  superficial  area  of  the  sphere  of  light  surrounding  the 
arc  P,  about  90  per  cent  of  the  light  is  lost  by  absorbtion 
by  the  walls  of  the  lamp  house,  hence  only  10  per  cent  is 
effective  at  the  condenser  lens  for  projection.  In  the 
future  the  projector  will,  no  doubt,  be  provided  with  a 
reflector  that  will  concentrate  and  throw  the  light  on  the 
condenser  where  it  belongs.  When  this  is  accomplished, 
it  will  be  possible  to  secure  brighter  pictures  with  less 
expenditure  of  current. 

THE  MOTION   HEAD. 

The  part  of  the  projector  that  contains  the  film 
mechanism  is  known  as  the  "motion  head"  and  is  entirely 
independent  of  the  optical  system  except  that  the  head 
sometimes  affords  a  support  for  the  objective  lens.  In 
the  casing  of  the  "head"  is  the  shutter,  the  intermittent 
film  feed,  the  two  film  magazines,  and  the  safety  shutter. 
At  the  side  of  the  housing  is  the  operating  crank  for 
driving  the  machine. 

The  principal  elements  of  the  motion  head  are  shown 
in  their  usual  relation  by  Fig.  7.  The  light  from  the 


16 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 


condenser  C  passes  through  the  film  F,  the  gate  G,  the 
objective  lens  O,  and  the  shutter  D  to  the  screen  at  E. 
The  sprocket  S  engages  with  the  perforations  in  the 
film  and  draws  the  fresh  film  from  the  reel  R.  A  roller 
V  keeps  the  film  in  engagement  with  the  sprocket  and 
controls  a  loose  loop  L  known  as  the  "takeup"  loop. 
This  loop  prevents  excessive  strain  from  being  thrown 
into  the  film  by  the  intermittent  feed. 

From  the  loop,  the  film  is  drawn  into  the  film  gate 
G  where  it  is  straightened  out  and  put  under  slight  ten- 
sion by  the  friction  of  the  tension  plate  K.  The  film  is 


Fig.  10. — The  Geneva  intermittent  movement  used  for  feeding  the  fil 


drawn  through  the  gate  by  the  sprocket  T  which  is 
driven  by  the  intermittent  movement,  the  film  being  kept 
in  contact  with  the  sprocket  by  the  roller  U.  From  the 
sprocket  the  film  is  wound  on  the  reel  R.  The  light  pass- 
ing through  the  film  is  periodically  interrupted  by  the 
shutter  D  at  the  time  when  the  film  is  being  pulled 
through  the  gate. 

THE  SHUTTER. 

In  nearly  all  machines  the  film  remains  stationary 
in  the  gate  for  four-fifths  of  the  one-sixteenth  second 
taken  to  pass  one  picture.  One  fifth  of  the  total  time  is 
taken  for  the  shifting  of  the  film,  and  therefore  repre- 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING  17 

sents  the  time  the  lens  would  be  covered  by  the  shutter, 
were  the  action  of  the  shutter  instantaneous.  Since  a 
considerable  length  of  time  is  required  for  the  shutter 
edge  to  traverse  the  width  of  the  light  beam,  the  actual 
period  of  darkness  is  greater  than  the  theoretical  time, 
which  of  course  reduces  the  value  of  the  screen  illumina- 
tion. To  obtain  a  maximum  shutter  opening  and  illum- 
ination it  is  evident  that  the  shutter  should  close  promptly 
and  open  promptly  at  the  instant  that  the  picture  comes 
to  rest  in  the  gate  and  when  it  again  starts  to  move  out 
of  the  field  of  the  lens. 

The  problem  of  quick  shutter  action  has  led  to  the 
development  of  a  multitude  of  devices,  only  three  of 
which  have  survived  the  tests  of  practical  usage.  All  of 
the  three  shutters,  the  disc,  barrel  type,  and  multiple  disc 
types,  are  rotary  and  revolve  continuously  in  fixed  re- 
lation to  the  movement  of  the  film  feed  mechanism. 

The  barrel  shutter  used  in  some  machines  now  on 
the  market  consists  of  two  parallel  blades,  that  revolve 
together  about  a  common  center,  the  blades  being  seg- 
ments of  the  surface  of  a  cylinder  whose  center  coincides 
with  the  center  of  rotation  as  shown  by  Fig.  8.  When 
the  blades  A  and  B  are  in  the  position  shown,  the  con- 
verging light  rays  C-C  and  D-D  pass  between  them  to 
the  screen.  On  rotating  the  cylinder  in  the  direction 
shown  by  the  arrows,  the  blade  A  starts  to  cut  off  the 
upper  rays  C-C,  and  the  blade  B  cuts  upward  through 
the  lower  rays  D-D,  thus  cutting  the  beam  at  double 
the  peripheral  speed  of  the  drum.  When  the  edges  of  A 
and  B  are  opposite  one  another  on  a  horizontal  line,  the 
light  is  completely  interrupted.  This  action  occurs  twice 
per  revolution,  making  it  possible  to  run  the  shutter  at 
half  the  speed  of  the  film  feed  or  at  the  rate  of  one  revo- 
lution for  two  pictures. 

As  the  blades  work  from  both  sides  of  the  ray  at 
the  same  time,  the  cutting  action  is  very  rapid,  being 
twice  that  of  a  single  edge  that  passes  through  the  ray 
in  the  ordinary  manner.  When  the  drum  is  revolved  at 
the  same  speed  as  the  film  shift  mechanism,  the  light  is 
admitted  to  the  lens  and  cut-off  twice  per  picture,  which 
makes  the  interruption  less  apparent  and  reduces  the 
flicker  that  is  in  evidence  at  the  lower  speed  of  one  in- 
terruption per  picture.  Because  of  the  high  cutting 


18 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 


speed  that  results  in  a  small  cylinder  diameter,  the 
barrel  type  of  shutter  is  placed  inside  of  the  motion 
head  casing  between  the  film  and  the  objective  lens,  and 
centered  on  the  apex  of  the  converging  light  rays. 

The  disc  shutter,  the  most  commonly  used  type,  is 
simply  a  circular  sheet  metal  disc  in  which  two  or  more 
sector  shaped  windows  or  openings  are  cut,  and  unlike 
the  barrel  type,  its  edges  enter  one  side  of  the  beam  only, 
and  from  there  pass  entirely  across  the  beam.  As  the  cut- 
ting speed  of  a  single  opening  is  only  half  that  of  the  bar- 
rel type  shutter,  the  disc  is  necessarily  of  larger  diameter 


Fig.    11. — The    Geneva   movement   connected   to   the   sprocket   wheel    as   it 
appears  on  the  machine. 

and  must  contain  more  openings  in  order  to  keep  the  rate 
of  opening  and  closing  above  the  flicker  point. 

When  a  disc  shutter  has  but  one  blade  that  acts 
only  during  the  fifth  of  the  total  period  when  the  film  is 
being  changed,  four-fifths  of  the  light  reaches  the  screen. 
As  this  period  of  exposure  is  comparatively  long,  the 
single  blade  is  not  desirable.  With  a  two-blade  shutter 
that  is  arranged  so  that  each  blade  covers  the  lens  dur- 
ing one  fifth  of  the  total  picture  shift,  twice  as  many 
impulses  are  obtained,  but  the  light  is  reduced  by  one 
fifth  more,  making  the  screen  illumination  only  three- 
fifths  of  the  maximum.  The  number  of  interruptions 
given  by  a  two-blade  disc  shutter  are  equal  to  those  of 
the  barrel  type  running  at  the  same  speed. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING  19 

In  practice  the  disc  shutter  is  usually  supplied  with 
three  openings  and  blades,  each  opening  being  approxi- 
mately one-sixth  of  the  total  area  of  the  disc.  Fig.  9 
shows  the  arrangement  of  the  three  bladed  disc.  Double 
discs  have  been  used  in  some  cases  to  obtain  the  quick 
opening  and  closing  characteristics  of  the  barrel  shutter, 
the  discs  being  revolved  in  opposite  directions  so  that  the 
light  beam  is  cut  in  two  places  at  the  same  time.  This 
of  course  doubles  the  cutting  speed  and  materially  re- 
duces the  flicker  incident  to  a  single  blade  traveling  at  a 
low  speed. 

INTERMITTENT   MOVEMENTS. 

The  intermittent  motion  required  for  shifting  the 
film  through  the  gate  converts  the  continuous  rotary  mo- 


Fig.  12. — Film  sprocket. 

tion  of  the  crank  into  a  series  of  short  rectilinear  move- 
ments, each  of  which  is  equal  to  the  height  of  the  picture 
on  the  film.  There  are  many  devices  by  which  this  re- 
sult may  be  accomplished,  but  as  there  are  only  two 
of  these  movements  in  extended  use,  we  will  confine 
ourselves  to  a  description  of  these  types. 

The  "Geneva  movement,"  which  is  by  far  the  most 
commonly  used  type  on  projectors,  possesses  nearly  all 
of  the  desirable  qualities  of  a  film  feeding  mechanism. 
It  starts  the  film  slowly,  brings  it  up  to  speed  without 
strain,  it  then  brings  it  to  rest  at  a  gradually  decreasing 
rate.  During  the  interval  at  which  the  film  is  at  rest  in 
the  gate,  the  device  holds  it  firmly  in  place  without  dan- 
ger of  slack  or  vibration,  either  of  which  would  cause 
the  image  to  flicker  on  the  screen. 

The  movement  consists  of  two  parts:  the  "star," 
which  is  fastened  to  the  sprocket  shaft,  and  the  "pin" 
wheel  that  revolves  continuously  with  the  operating 
crank,  the  latter  element  being  the  driving  member. 


20  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

These  parts  are  shown  in  elevation  by  Fig.  10,  in  which 
A  is  the  star  wheel,  and  B  is  the  wheel  carrying  the  pin. 

When  the  wheel  B  is  revolved  in  the  direction  shown 
by  the  arrow,  the  pin  C  engages  with  the  slot  F  and 
turns  the  cross  A  through  one-quarter  of  a  revolution, 
the  point  of  the  cross  passing  through  the  opening  G 
in  the  retaining  ring  D.  After  turning  through  this 
quarter  revolution,  the  slot  arrives  at  the  point  H  and  is 
held  rigidly  in  position  by  the  ring  D  that  fits  into  the 
concave  face  /  of  the  star  wheel. 

As  the  wheel  B  continues  to  turn,  the  ring  D  holds 
the  star  wheel  in  position  so  that  it  cannot  move  until 
the  pin  C  completes  another  revolution,  and  enters  the 
next  slot  of  the  star  wheel.  In  this  way  the  star  wheel 
makes  one  quarter  of  a  revolution  for  every  complete 
revolution  of  the  pin  wheel  B,  or  one  revolution  for  four 
of  the  wheel  B.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  figure,  the 
starting  of  the  movement  is  slow,  as  the  pin  enters  the 
slot  in  a  direction  nearly  parallel  to  the  groove.  As  the 
pin  approaches  the  center  line  of  the  wheels,  the  speed 
of  the  star  wheel  is  increased  rapidly  but  smoothly  as 
the  effective  radius  of  the  pin  increases  at  the  expense  of 
that  of  the  star  wheel. 

From  this  point  on,  the  rapidity  of  movement  gradu- 
ally decreases  until  the  pin  finally  leaves  the  slot  in  a 
direction  parallel  to  the  edges.  At  this  point,  of  course, 
the  star  comes  to  a  stop,  and  the  ring  comes  into  contact 
with  the  concave  face,  holding  it  firmly  in  position.  The 
shaft  R  connects  with  the  sprocket  wheels,  and  the  shaft 
E  with  the  operating  crank.  The  opening  G  in  the  re- 
taining ring  is  directly  below  the  pin  C. 

By  employing  two  pins  instead  of  one,  the  star  wheel 
may  be  made  to  turn  one  half  revolution  instead  of  one 
quarter  per  revolution  of  the  pin  wheel,  as  the  two 
pins  will  engage  in  the  slots  twice  as  often  as  the  single 
pin.  The  addition  of  the  second  pin  necessitates  no 
further  changes  in  the  gear  except  that  a  second  open- 
ing G  must  be  supplied  under  that  pin.  The  ratio  be- 
tween the  periods  of  rest  and  motion  in  the  star  wheel 
depends  entirely  upon  the  relation  of  the  diameters  of 
the  two  wheels. 

The  claw  mechanism,  while  seldom  used  in  projector 
construction,  is  used  extensively  in  the  cameras  used  for 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 


21 


taking  moving  pictures.  In  the  claw  motion,  a  finger 
works  directly  on  the  film  perforations  instead  of  act- 
ing through  a  sprocket  wheel.  The  "claw,"  driven  by  a 
suitable  crank  or  cam,  moves  forward,  engages  with  a  set 
of  perforations  in  the  film,  and  then  moves  down,  carry- 
ing the  film  with  it  through  a  distance  equal  to  the  height 
of  the  picture.  At  the  end  of  the  stroke,  the  claws  dis- 


Fig.  13. — The  claw  type  of  intermittent  motion,  used  principally  on  motion 
picture  cameras. 

engage  from  the  film  and  return  to  the  starting  point 
ready  to  pull  down  the  next  section  of  film. 

A  typical  example  of  this  type  of  feed  mechanism 
is  shown  by  Fig.  13,  in  which  F  is  the  film,  A  and  A*  the 
claws,  E  the  connecting  rod  and  C  the  crank.  When  the 
claws  are  in  the  position  shown,  they  are  in  engagement 
with  perforations  in  the  film  F.  As  the  crank  continues 
to  turn  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow,  the  claw  points  are 
carried  down  by  the  rods  E  and  pulling  the  film 
with  them  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  R.  At  the  bot- 


22  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

torn  of  the  stroke,  the  crank  pin  moves  to  the  left  and 
the  claws  to  the  right,  pulling  them  out  of  the  perfora- 
tions and  free  from  the  film.  The  claws  remain  a  short 
distance  from  the  film  until  the  crank  again  reaches  the 
top  of  the  stroke  and  moves  to  the  right,  moving  the 
claws  again  into  contact  with  the  film  perforations. 

The  claw  rods  are  prevented  from  moving  with  the 
crank  in  a  horizontal  direction  by  means  of  the  radius 
rod  B  which  extends  from  a  stationary  portion  of  the 
machine.  The  radius  rod  is  pivoted  at  both  ends,  permit- 
ting the  claw  rods  to  oscillate  about  the  joints. 

THE  FILM  GATE. 

The  principal  function  of  the  film  gate  is  to  steady 
and  flatten  the  film  so  that  it  will  not  move  edgewise  in 
the  gate  during  the  period  of  projection,  or  cause  dis- 
tortion of  the  image  through  the  curling  of  the  film.  It 
also  acts  as  a  check  to  the  momentum  of  the  film  so 
that  it  will  not  "follow"  nor  buckle  when  the  film  and 
reels  are  brought  suddenly  to  rest.  The  opening  or  aper- 
ture in  the  gate  is  slightly  smaller  than  the  picture  on  the 
film,  and  prevents  the  light  from  escaping  around  the 
edges  of  the  picture. 

In  effect,  the  gate  is  a  form  of  friction  brake  that 
acts  directly  on  the  film,  the  frictional  drag  acting  against 
the  pull  of  the  feed  sprocket  so  that  the  film  is  kept 
taut  and  straight  at  all  times  whether  moving  or  station- 
ary. To  prevent  sidewise  motion,  or  to  prevent  the  film 
from  assuming  a  diagonal  position  in  front  of  the  aper- 
ture, the  plate  is  provided  with  two  side  rails  which  act 
as  guides,  the  distance  between  the  rails  being  just 
enough  to  clear  the  width  of  the  film  and  no  more. 
Friction  is  produced  by  the  action  of  springs  that  press 
a  plate  on  the  back  of  the  film,  forcing  the  front  face 
against  the  main  gate  platen.  The  tension  on  the  film 
may  be  varied  to  compensate  for  the  wear  on  the  surfaces 
by  increasing  or  decreasing  the  spring  tension. 

When  the  shutter  and  film  shift  mechanism  are  not 
operating  in  the  proper  relation  to  the  gate,  so  that  the 
picture  is  not  exactly  in  the  center  when  the  shutter 
opens,  the  picture  is  said  to  be  "out  of  frame."  When 
this  condition  exists,  the  top  of  the  picture  no  longer 
coincides  with  the  top  of  the  illuminated  area  on  the 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING  23 

screen,  with  the  result  that  parts  of  two  adjacent  pictures 
are  thrown  on  the  screen  simultaneously.  To  avoid 
stopping  the  machine  for  readjustment,  all  commercial 
machines  are  provided  with  devices  by  which  the  proper 
relation  may  be  re-established  by  the  operator  while 
turning  the  crank.  This  operation  is  known  as  "framing 
up." 

Framing  the  picture  may  be  accomplished  by  four 
different  methods,  all  of  which  depend  upon  changing 
the  relative  positions  of  the  gate,  lens  and  film  sprocket. 
Moving  the  lens  and  gate  up  or  down  will  bring  the  pic- 


\ 


Fig.  14. — A  reel  of  film  ready  for  projection. 

ture  in  frame,  advancing  or  retarding  the  film  shaft  with 
the  lens  and  gate  stationary  will  give  the  same  result. 
Increasing  or  decreasing  the  amount  of  slack  in  the  film 
loop  will  change  the  relation  of  the  film  and  film  gate, 
and  is  therefore  effective  in  framing  the  picture. 

No  matter  what  system  is  used,  the  control  lever 
that  frames  the  picture  is  invariably  capable  of  a  film 
displacement  equal  to  the  height  of  one  picture,  or  even 
more.  When  the  operator  looks  at  the  screen  and  dis- 
covers that  the  picture  is  out  of  frame,  a  slight  movement 
of  the  framing  lever  in  one  direction  or  the  other  will 
'raise  or  lower  the  picture  in  the  gate  to  the  correct  posi- 
'tion. 

THE    SAFETY    SHUTTER. 

The  light  concentrating  effect  of  the  condenser  lens 
produces  a  very  high  temperature  in  the  film  gate,  much 
higher  than  the  ignition  temperature  of  the  celluloid  film, 


24  MOTION    PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 

and  for  this  reason  the  film  must  be  kept  moving  rapidly 
in  order  to  prevent  the  light  rays  from  setting  it  on  fire. 
Should  the  film  stop  for  even  a  few  seconds  in  the  gate, 
it  will  burst  into  flames.  Any  accident  or  neglect  that 
will  cause  the  film  to  stop  or  slow  up,  such  as  film  break- 
age, or  failure  to  turn  the  machine  at  the  correct  speed, 


Fig.  IS. — A  belt-driven  take-up  reel.  The  reel  is  driven  by  the  belt  (3) 
that  passes  over  the  pulley  (4).  The  friction  adjustment  is  made  by 
the  thumb  screw  (6). 

might  cause  fire  unless  some  device  is  provided  that  will 
automatically  cut  off  the  light  from  the  condenser  as  soon 
as  the  trouble  occurs. 

A  device  of  this  nature,  known  as  a  "safety  shutter," 
is  provided  in  some  form  on  all  projectors,  although  in 
the  majority  of  cases  it  is  effective  only  in  cutting  off  the 
light  when  the  machine  slows  down  beyond  a  certain 
point.  A  trustworthy  safety  shutter  acting  automatically 
when  the  film  stops,  and  not  merely  when  the  machine 
stops,  seems  not  to  have  been  developed  up  to  the  pres- 
ent time.  The  many  conflicting  conditions  that  must  be 
met  with  such  a  device  makes  the  design  of  a  fool-proof 
safety  shutter  a  difficult  proposition,  and  from  the  fail- 
ures recorded  it  would  seem  that  the  only  solution  of  the 
problem  is  non-inflammable  film. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING  25 

In  practically  all  projectors,  the  safety  shutter  con- 
sists of  a  metal  gate  placed  between  the  condenser  and 
the  film.  A  centrifugal  type  of  governor  driven  by  the 
motion  of  the  operating  crank  is  connected  to  the  slid- 
ing gate  in  such  a  way  that  any  decrease  in  the  crank- 
ing speed  slides  the  gate  between  the  film  and  light.  The 
governor  consists  of  a  vertical  spindle  on  which  are 
pivoted  two  small  balls  or  weights.  When  the  spindle  is 
revolved,  the  weights  tend  to  assume  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion, and  in  swinging  up  from  the  vertical  plane,  they 
move  a  rod  that  acts  on  the  safety  shutter.  A  spring 
that  acts  on  the  revolving  weights  places  a  limit  on  the 
allowable  shutter  travel  for  any  given  speed,  hence  the 
rise  of  the  weights  is  roughly  proportional  to  the  speed 
of  the  crank  and  spindle. 

To  reduce  the  danger  of  having  flame  spread  back 
into  the  feed  reel,  it  is  customary  to  enclose  all  of  the 
film,  except  that  immediately  in  front  of  the  lens,  in  a 
fire-proof  metal  casing.  A  metallic  tube,  placed  around 
the  film  issuing  from  the  reels,  smothers  the  flame  before 
it  travels  more  than  an  inch,  with  the  result  that  only  a 
few  pictures  are  burned  in  the  vicinity  of  the  aperture. 
This,  however,  does  not  prevent  possible  interruption  of 
the, show,  nor  does  it  insure  complete  protection  against 
the  loss  of  the  reel  of  film,  for  it  is  possible  for  the  opera- 
tor to  neglect  closing  the  access  doors  of  the  magazine. 

FEED  AND  TAKE-UP  REELS. 

The  reels  upon  which  the  film  is  wound  are  invari- 
ably encased  in  metal  shields  called  "magazines,"  which 
are  directly  attached  to  the  motion  head.  Circular  doors 
located  in  the  sides  of  the  magazine  allow  the  operator 
to  insert  and  remove  the  reels  of  film.  A  spindle  is  pro- 
vided on  which  the  reel  turns  freely  as  the  film  is  wound 
and  unwound  by  the  action  of  the  feeding  mechanism. 

The  feed  reel  is  simply  a  spool  having  two  metal 
flanges  about  ten  inches  in  diameter,  and  a  core  that  is 
provided  with  a  spring  clip  for  holding  the  end  of  the 
film.  Fig.  14,  shows  a  reel  of  film  ready  for  mounting 
in  the  projector. 

The  take-up  reel  is  the  same  as  the  feed,  except  that 
is  is  mechanically  driven  through  a  belt  by  the  operating 
crank  instead  of  by  the  pull  of  the  intermittent  feed 


26 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 


mechanism.  As  the  take-up  reel  receives  the  film  from 
the  feed  reel,  the  roll  of  film  becomes  larger  and  larger 
in  diameter,  and  therefore  revolves  more  slowly  than 
the  feed  reel  from  which  the  film  is  unwound.  To  com- 
pensate for  this  difference  in  speed,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  the  take-up  reel  slip  in  regard  to  the  feed  reel  to  pre- 
vent excessive  strain  on  the  delicate  film.  This  is  ac- 
complished in  some  machines  by  means  of  friction  discs 


Fig.  16. — View  in  the  operating  booth  of  a  motion  picture  theater,  with 
the  projector  in  the  foreground.  At  the  rear,  one  of  the  operators 
is  rewinding  a  film. 

attached  to  the  reel  drive  adjusted  so  that  it  is  possible 
to  apply  only  enough  power  to  turn  the  reel,  and  not 
enough  to  snap  the  film.  In  other  machines  the  tension 
of  the  belt  is  adjusted  so  that  it  will  slip  when  too  much 
pull  is  exerted  on  the  film.  Since  all  friction  devices 
wear  in  time  and  cause  trouble  by  getting  out  of  adjust- 
ment it  would  seem  that  a  differential  gear,  such  as  used 
on  spinning  machinery,  could  be  applied  with  advantage 
to  the  projector.  The  action  of  the  differential  insures 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  27 

constant  tension  on  the  strand  at  all  times,  and  is  not 
influenced  by  wear. 

REWINDING   THE   FILM. 

After  the  film  has  been  projected,  and  is  completely 
wound  on  the  take-up  reel,  it  is  necessary  to  rewind  it 
on  the  feed  reel  so  that  the  pictures  will  again  go  through 
the  projector  in  the  proper  order.  If  the  film  were  fed 
into  the  machine  directly  from  the  take-up  reel  the  pic- 
tures would  appear  reversed  upon  the  screen.  Rewind- 
ing may  either  be  accomplished  directly  on  the  projector, 
or  by  a  separate  rewinding  machine  which  is  generally 
driven  by  a  motor.  In  many  states  a  rewinding  ma- 
chine is  necessary  because  of  the  laws  that  prohibit  re- 
winding in  the  operating  booth. 

When  the  film  is  to  be  rewound  on  the  projector, 
the  operating  crank  is  arranged  so  that  the  speed  of  re- 
wind is  much  greater  than  the  ordinary  projecting  speed. 
This  makes  it  possible  to  rewind  a  film  in  two  minutes 
that  took  twenty  to  project.  The  rewind  speed  may  be 
obtained  either  by  shifting  a  lever  on  the  machine,  or 
by  transferring  the  crank  to  an  independent  rewind  shaft. 

MOTOR  DRIVE   FOR   PROJECTORS. 

Motor  driven  projectors  have  many  advantages  but 
are  prohibited  in  practically  all  of  the  larger  cities  as  the 
use  of  the  motor  makes  it  possible  for  the  operator  to 
leave  the  machine  when  in  operation.  If  the  motor 
should  stop,  or  the  film  break  during  his  absence  the 
chances  for  a  disastrous  fire  would  be  greatly  increased 
over  the  ordinary  method  of  operation.  Practically  the 
only  remedy  for  this  condition  would  be  a  spring  con- 
trolled switch  that  would  cut  out  the  light  as  soon  as  the 
operator  removed  his  hand  from  the  machine,  making  it 
impossible  for  him  to  leave  the  booth  with  the  machine 
running.  As  it  is  difficult  to  construct  a  switch  so  that 
it  cannot  be  tied  or  braced  in  the  running  position  by  the 
operator,  the  use  of  the  motor  has  so  far  been  con- 
demned. Some  progress  in  designing  automatic  stops 
for  motor  driven  projectors  has  been  made,  however. 

THE    SCREEN. 

The  screen  acts  simply  as  a  reflector,  the  function 
of  which  is  to  reflect  every  image  thrown  on  it  by  the 


28  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

projector  back  into  the  eyes  of  the  audience.  With  a 
screen  having  a  high  reflecting  value,  it  is  possible  to  se- 
cure bright  pictures  with  a  small  amount  of  current  in 
the  lamp,  which  naturally  gives  a  low  operating  cost. 
In  the  attempt  to  cut  down  the  current  consumption  of 
the  lamp,  and  to  increase  the  brilliancy  of  the  screen 
image,  many  manufacturers  have  conducted  experiments 
with  different  materials  such  as  aluminum,  aluminum 
bronze,  and  mirrors  with  ground  surfaces  for  use  in 
building  screens.  The  aluminum  has  been  used  both  in 
the  metallic  form,  and  in  the  form  of  bronze  paint  which 
has  been  applied  either  on  the  plaster  of  the  wall  or  on 
muslin  screens.  The  mirror  screens,  while  having  a  high 
first  cost,  have  proved  very  efficient. 

The  selection  of  a  proper  screen  material  is  of  great 
importance  to  the  theater  owner,  both  in  regard  to  operat- 
ing economy,  and  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  show.  With 
the  usual  rates  for  illuminating  current,  a  mirror  screen 
or  aluminum  screen  will  soon  pay  the  difference  in  first 
cost  over  the  common  muslin  or  plaster  surface.  The 
relative  values  of  the  different  surfaces  are  given  in  the 
following  table,  and  are  expressed  in  the  percentages 
of  reflection  that  they  give  in  regard  to  a  surface  giv- 
ing total  of  100  per  cent  reflection. 

Value  in 
Material.  Per  Cent. 

Polished  silver 92— .93 

Mirror,  silvered  on  back 82 — .38 

Aluminum,   frosted 60 — .65 

Plaster  walls,  white 35— .40 

To  prevent  the  distortion  of  the  image,  the  screen 
should  always  be  placed  perpendicular  to  the  optical  cen- 
ter of  the  projector.  If  the  screen  is  tilted  out  of  this 
position  on  a  horizontal  axis,  the  vertical  distances  will 
be  shortened  with  a  constant  horizontal  length.  If 
turned  to  the  right  or  left,  the  vertical  lengths  will  re- 
main the  same,  but  the  horizontal  will  be  reduced.  The 
distortion  will  be  the  greatest  at  the  farther  edge  of  the 
screen  as  the  distance  included  between  the  angle  of 
two  adjacent  rays  is  greater  at  the  greater  distance.  The 
screen  should  be  given  a  backward  inclination  when  the 
projector  is  pointed  down  at  the  screen  from  a  balcony 
or  other  elevated  position  so  that  the  screen  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  optical  center  of  the  projector. 


CHAPTER   II. 

MAKING   THE    PICTURE. 

In  a  general  way,  the  process  of  taking  and  finishing 
motion  pictures  is  the  same  as  that  followed  by  the 
amateur  photographer  in  taking  and  finishing  snap  shot 
pictures.  In  both  cases  a  "negative"  film  is  obtained  by 
exposing  a  sensitized  strip  in  a  camera  which  is  after- 
wards developed  and  printed.  This  negative  is  then  used 
in  obtaining  a  "positive"  print  by  allowing  light  to  pass 
through  the  image  on  the  negative  and  onto  the  posi- 
tive sensitized  film.  This  reproduces  the  image  but  in  a 
reversed  form,  all  of  the  light  portions  of  the  negative 
being  dark  on  the  positive,  and  vice-versa.  Instead  of 
using  paper  for  the  positive  print  as  in  Kodak  photo- 
graphy, the  motion  picture  manufacturer"  makes  his  on 
a  celluloid  strip  that  is  similar  to  the  negative  film.  The 
light  of  the  projector  passes  through  the  transparent  posi- 
tive print  and  traces  the  image  on  the  screen. 

The  principal  difference  between  the  snap  shot  and 
motion  picture  camera  lies  in  the  shutter  action  and  the 
film  feeding  mechanism,  the  action  of  these  parts  being 
practically  continuous  in  the  motion  picture  camera.  Ex- 
ternally the  latter  type  of  machine  resembles  a  large 
box  camera  that  has  a  crank,  a  film  measuring  dial,  and 
focusing  aperture  in  addition  to  the  equipment  of  the 
hand  camera.  An  exceptionally  fast  lens  is  required, 
the  usual  lens  being  an  anastigmat  with  a  working  aper- 
ture of  //3.5  to  //3.0,  while  lenses  of  f/2.0  are  not  un- 
common. All  of  the  cameras  are  provided  with  adjust- 
able diaphragms  similar  to  those  used  with  view  cameras. 
The  focal  length  of  the  lens  ranges  from  2  to  4  inches. 
The  usual  focal  length,  about  three  inches,  gives  an  angle 
of  view  of  about  twenty  degrees.  A  two-inch  focal 
length  gives  about  thirty  degrees.  When  more  field  is 
required  in  the  foreground  than  is  given  by  the  three- 
inch  lens,  a  lens  of  shorter  focal  length  is  substituted. 


30 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 


Two  independent  mechanisms,  the  shutter  and  the 
film  feeding  device,  are  actuated  by  the  crank  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  film  is  fed  forward  for  a  new  exposure 
with  the  shutter  closed,  and  is  held  stationary  while  the 
exposure  is  being  made,  the  film  progressing  through  the 
camera  by  a  series  of  jerks.  At  each  movement  the  film  is 
fed  forward  through  a  distance  equal  to  the  height  of  one 


Fig   17. — Motion  picture  camera   and  operator  ready   for   action. 

picture  (^4-inch).  As  the  camera  operator  continues  to 
crank  the  machine,  the  shutter  and  film  movements  are 
repeated  over  and  over  again  so  that  a  number  of  pic- 
tures are  made  in  a  row  down  the  center  of  the  film. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING  31 

These  miniature  photographs  are  placed  so  close  that  the 
top  of  one  coincides  with  the  bottom  edge  of  the  picture 
lying  next  to  it. 

To  insure  accurate  spacing,  the  film  in  some  cases 
is  positively  driven  through  a  sprocket  wheel  that  en- 
gages with  a  series  of  perforations  in  the  edges  of  the 
film.  In  this  way  a  fixed  relation  is  maintained  between 
the  shutter  and  the  pictures  so  that  each  picture  will  be 
in  the  proper  place  in  the  projector  on  the  opening  of  the 
shutter.  In  other  cameras  the  toothed  sprocket  wheel  is 
supplanted  by  a  reciprocating  hooked  rod  or  claw,  the 
points  of  which  engage  with  the  perforations  in  the  edges 
of  the  film.  In  either  case  the  result  is  the  same.  The 
claw  points  engage  with  the  perforations  at  the  upper 
end  of  their  stroke,  and  as  the  crank  revolves  they  are 
jerked  down  suddenly,  pulling  the  film  with  them  through 
a  distance  equal  to  the  height  of  the  picture.  At  the 
lower  end  of  the  stroke  a  special  motion  disengages  the 
claws  from  the  perforations  and  they  at  once  begin  their 
upward  travel  without  moving  the  film.  The  claw  type 
of  intermittent  mechanism  as  shown  in  Fig.  13  in  Chapter 
I,  is  better  adapted  to  the  camera  than  the  projector,  for 
in  the  camera  the  period  of  film  rest  is  shorter  and  the 
wear  due  to  the  claw  movement  is  practically  negligible 
as  the  film  passes  through  the  camera  but  once. 

A  revolving  shutter  of  the  vane  or  sector  type  is 
generally  used  which  is  gear  connected  with  the  operat- 
ing crank.  This  shutter  is  simply  a  circular  sheet  metal 
disk  with  a  "V"  or  sector  shaped  opening  cut  in  it  for 
the  admission  of  light  to  the  film.  As  it  revolves,  this 
opening  comes  opposite  to  the  lens  intermittently  and  in 
fixed  relation  to  the  film  movement. 

The  disc  shutter  is  used  in  nearly  all  cameras,  and  is 
very  similar  to  that  used  in  the  projector  except  for  the 
proportions  of  the  vanes  or  blades.  It  is  generally  placed 
between  the  lens  and  the  film.  The  openings  in  the  shut- 
ter are  usually  adjustable  by  the  use  of  two  discs,  or  rather 
half  discs,  that  are  mounted  on  the  shutter  shaft.  When 
the  two  halves  are  exactly  over  one  another  the  shutter 
is  said  to  be  "half  open"  as  the  opening  constitutes  one 
half  of  the  total  area  of  the  shutter.  By  sliding  one  disc 
over  the  other,  any  intermediate  proportion  of  opening 
may  be  easily  made.  The  usual  exposure  is  about  three- 


32 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND  EXHIBITING 


eighths  open.  The  exposure  given  with  this  opening  is 
much  longer  than  would  be  possible  with  an  ordinary 
snap  shot  camera  in  taking  pictures  of  moving  objects, 


Fig.  18.  The  interior  mechanism  of  a  motion  picture  camera.  F  is  the 
finder  tube  extending  from  the  gate  G  to  an  opening  in  the  back  of 
the  camera  at  Z.  C  is  the  intermittent  claw  movement.  S  and  R 
are  the  feed  and  takeup  sprockets  that  form  the  feed  and  takeup  loops 
A  and  B  respectively.  X  and  Y  are  the  feed  and  takeup  reels.  M 
is  the  access  door. 

where  the  slow  speed  would  cause  blurring.  The  effect 
of  blurring  in  the  case  of  the  motion  picture  is  practically 
negligible,  as  the  objects  projected  are  continually  chang- 
ing on  the  screen,  and  as  no  two  pictures  lie  on  the  same 
place  the  "fuzzy"  edge  is  not  noticeable. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 


33 


Two  light-tight  film  reels  are  provided  inside  of  the 
camera  for  the  exposed  and  unexposed  film,  the  film  un- 
winding from  one  reel  to  the  other  as  it  moves  past 
the  lens.  Both  reels  are  accessible  to  the  operator  through 
a  door  in  the  side  of  the  camera,  and  are  arranged  so 
that  they  may  be  removed  or  replaced  in  broad  daylight. 


Fig.  19.  Front  view  of  a  double  lens  camera,  showing  the  disc  shutter 
and  operating  crank.  The  gate  will  be  seen  directly  under  the 
shutter  opening  at  the  right. 

The  lens,  which  is  mounted  centrally  in  the  front  face  of 
the  camera,  is  focused  by  moving  ic  back  and  fourth  in  a 
tube  that  surrounds  the  barrel,  without  the  usual  bellows 
of  the  hand  camera. 

The  loading  of  a  motion  picture  camera  is  usually 
no  more  difficult  than  threading  the  film  through  a  pro- 
jector or  replacing  a  cartridge  in  a  snap  shot  camera.  The 
negative  film  is  supplied  in  two  hundred  foot  lengths, 
packed  in  a  flat,  round  tin  box  thoroughly  sealed  against 


34  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

the  light.  The  film  is  then  transferred  to  the  camera  film 
holder  by  rewinding  it  around  the  core  of  the  holder, 
or  by  opening  the  sides  and  slipping  the  roll  directly  on 
the  core.  When  the  film  is  in  place  the  outer  end  is 
slipped  through  the  feed  slot  ready  for  threading  through 
the  camera. 

The  film  holders  are  usually  light  wooden  boxes  just 
wide  enough  to  clear  the  film  and  large  enough  to  ac- 
commodate two  hundred  feet  of  film.  A  spindle  on  which 
the  film  is  wound  passes  through  the  sides  of  the  holder 
in  bearings ;  the  removal  of  the  side  door  through  which 
the  film  is  installed  allows  the  spindle  to  be  withdrawn 
for  the  purpose  of  reloading.  On  the  end  of  the  spindle 
is  a  slot  or  keyway  that  engages  with  the  camera  drive. 

There  is  no  focusing  screen  as  in  the  ordinary  camera, 
for  it  is  more  convenient  to  focus  the  camera  on  the  small 
portion  of  the  film  that  passes  in  front  of  the  lens.  The 
image  of  the  film  is  viewed  through  an  opening  in  the 
side  of  the  camera  box.  The  amount  of  film  that  is  de- 
stroyed by  the  process  of  focusing  is  very  small  and  has 
no  injurious  effect  on  the  balance  of  the  film  as  the  reels 
are  enclosed  in  light-tight  cases.  A  dial  that  indicates 
the  number  of  feet  of  film  that  has  passed  through  the 
camera  is  placed  on  the  side  of  the  box  so  that  the  opera- 
tor can  tell  exactly  how  much  film  is  left  in  the  magazine. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  operating  crank,  a  "trick" 
crank  and  reversing  crank  are  sometimes  provided.  When 
the  trick  crank  is  used,  onlv  one  half  of  the  pictures  are 
taken  per  second  or  sometimes  only  one  picture  at  each 
movement  of  the  crank.  The  reversing  crank  is  used  in 
taking  pictures  in  which  the  objects  appear  to  be  running 
backwards,  or  in  which  the  actors  appear  in  such  feats 
as  jumping  out  of  the  water  or  over  high  walls.  In  the 
latter  class  of  pictures  the  actor  really  jumps  down  from 
the  wall  or  into  the  water,  but  as  the  motion  of  the  film  is 
reversed  in  regard  to  the  pictures  taken  in  the  previous 
sections,  the  subjects  move  up  instead  of  down. 

In  some  studios,  double  film  cameras  are  used  that 
carry  double  lenses  and  shutters  acting  in  unison,  mak- 
ing it  possible  to  take  two  films  at  one  time.  The  general 
make-up  of  the  double  camera  is  the  same  as  the  single, 
the  only  difference  being  in  the  size  and  interconnections 
of  the  driving  gear.  The  lenses  are  focused  separately. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

A  motion  picture  camera  weighs  25  to  50 
pounds,  which  with  several  reels  of  film  and  a  heavy 
tripod,  makes  out  door  picture  taking  no  easy  task, 
especially  in  military  scenes  where  much  shifting  about 
is  necessary.  Taking  a  picture  means  more  than  merely 
grinding  a  crank,  and  contrary  to  the  general  belief  re- 
quires more  than  ordinary  photographic  knowledge.  In 
taking  studio  pictures  the  operator  must  assist  the  direc- 
tor in  keeping  the  action  between  two  sharply  defined 
boundary  lines,  must  keep  him  informed  as  to  the  length 
of  the  remaining  film,  and  must  keep  accurate  account 
of  every  motion  made  during  the  run  of  the  film.  In  a 
way  he  is  also  an  assistant  stage  manager. 

In  taking  pictures  from  aeroplanes  or  dirigibles,  the 
cameras  have,  in  several  instances,  been  driven  by  small 
electric  motors  instead  of  by  hand.  This  method  was 
necessary  for  the  reason  that  the  attention  of  the  aviator 
was,  of  necessity,  concentrated  on  his  controls. 

Great  care  must  be  exercised  by  the  camera  man  to 
have  the  operating  crank  turn  at  a  constant  number  of 
revolutions  per  minute  so  that  all  of  the  pictures  will  be 
equally  exposed,  and  so  that  the  pictures  will  have  the 
proper  speed  when  projected  on  the  screen.  Pictures 
that  have  been  taken  at  a  low  speed  cannot  be  properly 
corrected  on  the  screen.  The  speed  of  the  crank  must  be 
uniform  throughout  the  revolution  as  well,  to  prevent  a 
jerky  projection.  Too  vigorous  cranking  will  sway  the 
machine  from  side  to  side  causing  a  swaying  picture  on 
the  screen. 

FILM  AND  FILM  DIMENSIONS. 

The  film  stock  on  which  the  negative  is  taken  is  sim- 
ilar in  appearance  to  that  used  with  snap  shot  cameras, 
except  that  the  emulsion  is  much  faster  and  the  stock  is 
of  a  more  durable  quality.  It  is  \y%  inches  wide  and 
approximately  .006  inch  in  thickness,  of  which  .005  inch 
is  represented  by  the  celluloid,  and  .001  inch  by  the 
emulsion.  The  celluloid  is  manufactured  in  lengths  of 
200  feet,  the  usual  length  of  1,000  feet  being  obtained 
by  cementing  five  of  the  strips  together. 

The  pictures,  which  are  one  inch  in  width,  extend 
down  the  center  of  the  strip,  leaving  two  3-16-inch  mar- 
gins which  are  occupied  by  the  perforations.  Each  pic- 


36  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

ture  is  three-quarter  inch  high,  measured  along  the 
length  of  the  film,  making  16  pictures  per  running  foot. 
As  the  film  is  fed  through  the  projector  at  the  rate  of  16 
pictures  per  second,  its  velocity  is  one  foot  per  second. 
At  this  rate  a  1,000-foot  film  will  last  1,000  seconds  or 
a  little  less  than  twenty  minutes. 

All  makes  of  film  have  the  same  number  of  perfo- 
rations or  sprocket  holes  per  running  foot.  The  standard 
punching  is  four  holes  per  picture  on  each  side  of  the 
film,  or  64  perforations  per  foot.  Needless  to  say,  the 
spacing  of  the  holes  must  be  performed  with  the  great- 
est accuracy  in  order  to  have  the  pictures  synchronize 
with  the  shutter  of  the  projector  and  fit  the  sprocket 
teeth.  Imperfectly  spaced  sprocket  holes  cause  flicker- 
ing and  jumping  and  greatly  increase  the  wear  of  the 
film.  An  error  of  .001  inch  in  the  spacing  results  in  a 
movement  of  nearly  one-quarter  inch  on  the  screen. 

The  perforation,  which  is  about  one-eighth  inch  in 
width  and  one-sixteenth  inch  high,  is  of  an  oblong  shape, 
the  smaller  ends  being  slightly  rounded.  This  shape  is 
the  result  of  many  experiments  conducted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  discovering  the  form  of  perforation  that  would 
show  the  least  wear.  Circular,  triangular,  and  square 
perforations  were  all  tried  and  found  wanting;  the  cir- 
cular holes  would  wear  to  an  oval,  and  the  triangular 
holes  would  tear  out. 

In  the  majority  of  cases,  the  films  are  perforated  at 
the  studios  after  the  crude,  sensitized  stock  has  been 
received  from  the  film  manufacturer,  and  shortly  before 
the  exposure  is  made.  As  the  celluloid  expands  and 
contracts  continuously  after  its  manufacture,  because  of 
certain  physical  changes  that  take  place  in  its  composi- 
tion, it  is  best  to  perforate  shortly  before  the  exposure, 
in  order  to  prevent  errors  in  the  spacing  from  the  warp- 
ing of  the  film. 

In  printing  the  positive  film  from  the  negative,  the 
teeth  of  the  sprockets  in  the  printing  machine  pass 
through  both  films,  holding  them  in  perfect  register, 
until  the  proper  exposure  has  been  given.  This  makes 
the  positive  print  a  perfect  duplicate  of  the  negative  in 
every  respect. 

A  perforating  machine  is  simply  a  small  automatic 
punch  press,  that  punches  the  eight  holes  opposite  each 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING  37 

picture  in  a  single  operation,  usually  in  a  step  by  step 
method.  The  film  is  fed  by  an  intermittent  mechanical 
movement,  very  similar  to  the  camera  feed  movement. 
This  step  by  step  machine  is  more  accurate,  although 
slower,  than  the  rotary  machine  used  by  some  manufac- 
turers. The  rotary  press  passes  the  film  through  con- 
tinuously revolving  rollers  at  a  rate  five  or  six  times 
greater  than  the  intermittent  type. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  CELLULOID  FILM. 

While  celluloid  successfully  fills  all  of  the  require- 
ments of  a  true  photographic  base  in  regard  to  tough- 
ness, transparency,  and  flexibility,  it  is  objectionable  be- 
cause of  its  inflammable  nature.  To  overcome  this 
fault,  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  substitute  other 
materials  for  celluloid,  but  up  to  the  present  time  all  the 
materials  that  have  been  suggested  have  proved  of  little 
value  owing  to  their  brittleness.  In  several  of  the  pro- 
posed compounds,  the  brittleness  increases  with  the  age 
of  the  film,  so  that  at  the  end  of  a  few  months  it  is 
impossible  to  unwrap  the  film  from  the  reels  without 
breaking  it. 

Celluloid  is  a  chemical  combination  of  pyroxlin  (gun 
cotton)  and  gum  camphor.  The  two  constituents  are 
brought  into  intimate  contact  through  some  solvent,  such 
as  alcohol.  The  addition  of  the  camphor  solution  to  the 
fibrous  gun  cotton  converts  it  into  a  transparent  gelatin- 
ous mass  entirely  different  in  appearance  from  either 
of  the  original  components. 

Gun  cotton,  the  base  of  celluloid,  is  made  by  treat- 
ing ordinary  cotton  with  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  in 
nearly  equal  proportions.  During  the  time  the  cotton 
is  immersed  in  the  solution  it  undergoes  a  complete  chem- 
ical transformation,  but  without  any  apparent  change  in 
its  physical  structure  or  appearance.  When  the  process 
is  completed  the  cotton  is  taken  out  of  the  bath  and  is 
thoroughly  washed  in  cold  water  to  remove  the  last  traces 
of  the  acid.  Should  any  acid  remain  in  the  cotton  it 
would  effect  not  only  the  sensitized  emulsion  that  is  ap- 
plied but  would  also  increase  its  inflammability.  The 
camphor  used  in  the  process  is  dissolved  in  just  enough 
alcohol  to  effect  a  complete  solution  of  the  gum.  The 
alcohol  in  itself  acts  simply  as  a  medium  for  distrib- 


38 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 


uting  the  camphor  through  the  mass  of  the  cotton  and 
does  not  have  any  chemical  effect  in  the  reaction. 

After  the  preparation  of  the  camphor  solution  and 
gun  cotton,  alternate  layers  of  the  cotton  are  placed  in 
a  tank,  each  layer  being  thoroughly  sprinkled  with  the 
camphor  solution.  The  contents  of  the  tank  soon  corn- 


Negative  Film.  Positive   Film. 

Fig.  20.  Showing  the  difference  between  a  negative  film  and  the  positive 
print  taken  from  it.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  light  and  dark  portions 
of  the  negative  are  reversed  on  the  positive. 

bine  into  a  homogeneous  mass  and  the  resulting  crude 
celluloid  drops  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank  in  transparent 
lumps,  having  much  the  appearance  of  amber.  Slight 
variations  in  this  process  are  made  by  different  firms, 
some  of  which  comprise  a  mixture  of  gun  cotton  and 
molten  camphor  and  dissolve  the  mass  in  alcohol  or 
ether. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 


39 


The  celluloid  is  recovered  by  evaporating  the  solu- 
tion, which  leaves  the  celluloid  as  a  solid  mass  in  the 
evaporating  tank.  The  alcohol  or  ether  vapor  passes 
into  a  condenser  where  it  is  condensed  into  its  liquid 
form  for  future  use.  This  process  is  generally  used 
where  the  celluloid  is  used  in  moulded  forms  or  in  thick 
pieces.  When  the  lumps  of  crude  celluloid  have  been 
obtained  they  are  worked  between  cold  rollers  for  an 


Fig.      21.      Interior   view    of   the    Eastman    nitric    acid    plant,    showing   the 
cast  iron  condensing  receivers   where   the   acid   is   formed. 

hour,  so  as  to  make  the  mass  perfectly  homogeneous. 
They  are  then  further  treated  under  hot  rollers  for  the 
same  period  of  time.  During  the  hot  process,  the  cellu- 
loid becomes  attached  to  the  rollers  in  the  form  of  a 
comparatively  thick  layer  which  is  afterwards  stripped 
off  and  pressed  into  cakes  about  three-eighths  inch  thick. 
A  pile  of  the  cakes  are  now  placed  in  a  hydraulic 
press  where  they  remain  for  twenty-four  hours  under 
heavy  pressure.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the  cakes  are 
removed,  cut  into  plates  and  are  placed  in  a  dry  chamber 
for  a  period  of  from  ten  to  fourteen  days.  The  cellu- 
loid stock  is  now  finished,  ready  for  making  the  films. 


40  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

A  strip  of  celluloid  of  the  required  thickness  for  a 
film  (.005  inch  thick)  is  made  from  the  block,  about  22 
inches  wide  and  200  feet  in  length.  After  a  thorough 
cleaning  the  strip  is  ready  to  receive  the  sensitized  emul- 
sion coat  in  the  dark  room,  which,  with  the  exception 
of  cutting  and  perforating,  is  the  last  step  in  the  manu- 
facture. 

In  the  dark  room  the  strip  of  celluloid  passes  under 
a  hopper  tank  filled  with  the  liquid  emulsion.     At  the 


Fig.  22.     Centrifugal  drying  machines  for  removing  all  traces  of  moisture 
from  the  cotton. 

bottom  of  the  hopper  is  a  slot  that  extends  across  the 
22-inch  dimension  of  the  film,  and  as  the  strip  is  driven 
past  the  slot  it  receives  an  even  and  uniform  coat  of 
emulsion.  After  the  emulsion  has  been  thoroughly  dried, 
the  film  is  split  up  into  ribbons  of  the  finished  size  (1^ 
inches  wide).  The  process  of  pouring  the  emulsion  upon 
the  film  is  very  simple  and  effective  in  securing  an  even 
coating. 

Different  emulsions  are  used  for  the  positive  and 
negative  films,  the  emulsion  of  the  negative  being  much 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  41 

faster  than  that  of  the  positive,  as  is  the  case  with  dry 
plates  and  lantern  slides. 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    NEGATIVE. 

After  the  picture  has  been- taken,  the  camera  man 
delivers  the  film  to  the  negative  developing  department, 
where  it  is  developed  and  fixed  in  a  manner  very  sim- 
ilar to  that  adopted  in  developing  still  pictures.  Before 
proceeding  with  the  development  of  the  entire  film,  when 
the  exposure  and  light  conditions  are  unknown,  a  short 
piece  is  cut  off  and  developed  independently,  so  that  the 
proper  treatment  may  be  determined  without  endangering 
the  entire  reel. 

In  some  plants  the  exposed  film  is  wrapped  spirally 
around  a  light  rectangular  frame  or  rack,  for  conveni- 
ence in  handling,  and  is  then  dipped  into  a  tank  contain- 
ing the  developing  solution.  This  arrangement  enables 
the  operator  to  agitate  the  film  in  the  solution  and  ex- 
amine it  without  danger  of  injury  to  the  delicate  sensi- 
tized surface.  After  the  negative  has  been  developed  to 
the  required  density  it  is  placed  in  the  fixing  bath  of 
sodium  hyposulphite  where  it  remains  until  all  of  the 
active  emulsion  is  reduced,  and  is  no  longer  affected  by 
the  light. 

Fixing  having  been  completed,  the  film  is  thoroughly 
washed  in  clean  water  to  remove  the  last  traces  of  hypo, 
and  is  then  given  a  final  treatment  in  a  dilute  solution  of 
glycerine  and  water.  A  small  percentage  of  the  glycerine 
remains  with  the  film  even  after  it  has  been  dried,  and 
owing  to  the  moisture  absorbing  properties  of  the  glyc- 
erine enough  moisture  is  retained  to  keep  the  film  in  a 
soft  and  pliable  condition.  When  the  glycerine  has  been 
lost  after  a  considerable  service,  by  evaporation  or  other 
cause,  the  film  becomes  brittle  and  must  be  given  another 
treatment  in  the  glycerine  bath. 

The  film  is  dried  upon  large  revolving  wooden 
drums,  usually  driven  by  power.  The  motion  of  the 
drums  throws  off  any  small  drops  of  water  that  may 
adhere  to  the  back  of  the  film  and  keeps  a  constant  stream 
of  warm  air  moving  over  the  emulsion  side. 

For  convenience  in  developing  long  films  they  are 
often  wound  around  large  drums  similar  to  the  drying 
drums.  After  the  film  is  wound  on  the  drum  it  is  sus- 


42 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 


pended  over  the  developing  tank  in  such  a  way  that  the 
lower  edge  of  the  drum  and  the  film  dips  into  the  solu- 
tion. The  drum  is  now  revolved  until  the  negative  is 
developed  to  the  proper  density,  and  then  is  transferred 
to  the  fixing  and  washing  baths. 

In  taking  "topical"  films  or  news  items  for  the 
"weeklies"  different  sections  of  the  films  are  exposed 
under  different  light  conditions  or  on  different  days, 
with  the  result  that  some  portions  of  the  film  are  under 
and  others  over  exposed.  This  makes  it  impossible  to 
develop  the  film  in  a  single  length,  for  each  exposure 


Fig.    23.      Scene    in    a    typical    developing    room    showing    the    developing 
tanks. 

on  the  film  now  requires  separate  treatment.  For  the 
information  of  the  developing  department,  the  camera 
man  places  a  punch  mark  at  the  beginning  and  end  of 
each  of  the  different  exposures.  When  a  film  of  this 
nature  is  received,  the  developer  immediately  unrolls 
the  film,  cuts  it  apart  at  the  punch  marks,  and 
develops  each  part  separately.  After  drying,  the  pieces 
that  relate  to  the  same  subject  are  sorted  out  and  ce- 
mented together  so  that  they  form  a  continuous  strip. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  43 

The  subtitles  and  leaders  are  inserted  at  the  proper  points 
and  the  film  is  carefully  examined  for  mechanical  defects. 
The  completed  negative  is  projected  on  the  screen  before 
the  heads  of  the  various  departments  who  decide  what 
is  to  be  trimmed  out  of  the  picture  to  bring  it  within  the 
desired  length.  When  these  alterations  have  been  made, 
the  film  is  given  a  second  showing,  and  after  further 
criticism  all  weak  and  unnecessary  parts  are  eliminated. 

In  making  the  titles  and  sub-titles  a  set  of  block  let- 
ters are  generally  used,  the  letters  that  form  the  words  of 
the  title  being  arranged  in  the  proper  order  on  the  top  of 
a  table.  A  series  of  pictures  is  then  taken  of  the  letters 
by  a  motion  picture  camera  pointed  down  toward  the  top 
of  the  table.  In  the  film  the  titles  appear  as  a  series  of 
small  photographs,  very  similar  to  the  small  pictures. 

When  written  messages  are  used  for  sub-titles,  the 
original  is  lettered  on  a  large  sheet  by  the  draftsman.  In 
a  few  of  the  plants  all  of  the  sub-titles  are  lettered  by 
hand,  but  as  this  is  a  tedious  process  it  is  not  as  desir- 
able as  the  block  system.  Titles  in  which  the  letters 
move  across  the  screen  and  arrange  themselves  to  form 
a  word  are  made  by  alternately  moving  a  letter  through  a 
short  distance  and  taking  a  picture  until  all  of  the 
letters  are  finally  arranged  in  their  positions. 

PRINTING  THE  POSITIVE. 

When  the  negative  is  finished,  it  is  cut  up  into  lengths 
of  200  feet  for  use  in  printing  the  positives  or  projec- 
tion films.  As  in  making  any  positive  photographic  print, 
the  emulsion  side  of  the  negative  is  brought  into  direct 
contact  with  the  sensitized  side  of  the  positive  film,  and 
is  exposed  to  the  light  in  such  a  way  that  the  light  passes 
through  the  negative  and  on  to  the  face  of  the  positive. 
The  image  outlined  on  the  sensitized  positive  creates  a 
picture  that  is  the  reverse  of  that  on  the  negative,  that  is, 
all  of  the  light  portions  of  the  negative  are  dark  on  the 
finished  positive,  and  vice  versa.  The  positives  are 
printed  on  a  much  slower  film  than  the  negative,  but  one 
that  gives  more  contrast  and  better  results  in  projection. 
Artificial  light  is  always  used  in  printing  as  it  is  possible 
to  maintain  an  absolutely  uniform  illumination  on  the 
film  and  is  much  easier  to  control  than  sunlight. 

Because  of  the  length  of  the  film  and  for  the  reason 
that  the  pictures  on  both  the  negative  and  positive  must 


44  MOTION   PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 

bear  a  constant  relation  to  the  sprocket  holes,  a  special 
form  of  printing  machine  is  used  instead  of  the  usual 
photographic  printing  frame.  The  machines  contain- 
ing the  printing  lamps  are  used  in  a  dark  room  so  that 
the  sensitized  stock  can  be  handled  freely  without  danger 
of  being  light  struck.  The  operation  of  printing  requires 
great  care  and  precision  to  have  all  of  the  pictures  of  the 
same  density.  Uneven  printing  causes  flicker  on  the 


Fig.  24.     Joining  the  films  after  the  development. 

screen  and  an  annoying  increase  and  decrease  in  illum- 
ination. 

In  general,  the  printing  machines  are  divided  into 
two  principal  classes,  the  "step  by  step"  machine,  and  the 
continuous  or  "rotary"  type,  depending  on  the  method  by 
which  the  film  is  fed  into  the  machine. 

In  any  case  the  machine  must  take  the  rolls  of  nega- 
ative  and  positive  film  stock,  press  the  emulsion  sides 
closely  together,  and  feed  them  at  a  uniform  speed  past 
the  printing  light.  After  printing,  the  two  films  separate, 
the  negative  being  wound  on  one  reel  and  the  positive 
on  another.  Printing  with  a  "step  by  step"  machine  is 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  45 

similar  in  many  ways  to  taking  the  pictures  in  the  cam- 
era, as  the  pictures  are  printed  one  at  a  time,  the  film  be- 
ing stepped  ahead  during  the  time  that  a  shutter  cuts  off 
the  light. 

The  printing  light  is  placed  above  an  aperture  in  the 
printing  machine  that  is  of  the  same  size  as  the  single 
picture  (2^x1  inch).  The  intermittent  mechanism  feeds 
the  film  past  this  "gate."  A  framing  device  is  provided 
so  that  the  position  of  the  film  can  be  adjusted  in  regard 
to  the  sprocket  holes  of  the  feed  mechanism.  A  device 
also  shows  adjustment  of  the  rate  of  feed  and  regulates 
the  quantity  of  light,  so  that  negatives  of  varying  densi- 
ties may  be  accommodated. 

A  "continuous"  printing  machine  feeds  the  film  from 
the  magazine  to  the  take-up  reel  without  the  intermittent 
motion  of  the  machine  just  described,  and  consequently 
is  capable  of  printing  more  film  in  a  given  time.  It  is 
not  as  accurate  in  the  spacing  or  exposure  of  the  pictures 
as  the  intermittent  machine,  however,  for  when  the  two 
films  are  drawn  by  a  single  sprocket,  they  are  likely  to 
slip  on  one  another. 

The  development  of  the  positive  is  practically  the 
same  as  that  of  the  negative,  including  the  glycerine  bath. 
The  only  additional  feature  is  the  clearing  bath  which 
clears  the  high  lights  and  sharpens  the  detail.  After 
drying,  the  200- foot  pieces  are  spliced  into  1,000- foot 
lengths  and  are  projected  on  the  screen  for  further  ex- 
amination before  shipping.  Every  plant  is  equipped  with 
a  minature  theater  in  which  the  films  are  shown  to  the 
officials  and  players  before  being  placed  on  the  market. 

When  tinted  or  monochrome  films  are  desired,  they 
are  placed  in  the  tinting  tanks  before  drying. 

TINTED   FILMS. 

"Tinted"  or  stained  films  are  dyed  over  their  entire 
surface  with  a  single  color,  and  when  projected  give  the 
impression  of  being  thrown  on  a  colored  screen.  The 
high  lights  or  the  light  portions  of  the  film  is  the  only 
part  affected  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  spectator  for 
the  shadows  appear  black  as  in  the  usual  black  and  white 
picture.  A  red  stain  gives  a  realistic  effect  to  a  fire  scene, 
blue  gives  the  impression  of  moonlight,  and  yellow  adds 
greatly  to  a  sunlight  view,  especially  when  afl  open  har- 


46  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

vest  field  is  shown.  It  is  customary  with  many  film 
companies  to  tint  the  titles  and  sub-titles  to  reduce  the 
glare  of  the  open  lettering. 

The  color  effect  of  a  tinted  picture  is  increased  in 
"monochrome"  pictures  by  tinting  only  the  dark  parts 
of  the  film  with  a  single  color  dye.  This  type  of  pic- 
ture is  obtained  by  chemically  treating  the  film  with  the 
solution  that  converts  the  dark  silver  deposits  into  a  col- 
ored salt  without  affecting  the  light  or  transparent  por- 
tions. This  is  performed  either  with  a  special  developing 
solution  or  by  an  independent  process  after  development, 
the  result  being  a  red  on  white  or  blue  on  white  image. 
A  marine  view  made  by  the  monochrome  process,  show- 
ing white  caps  on  green  water,  is  very  realistic.  Moon- 
light scenes,  with  the  shadows  in  blue  and  white  high 
lights,  give  beautiful  results  on  the  screen.  Both  the 
tinted  and  monochrome  films  are  inexpensive  when  com- 
pared to  the  true  colored  pictures,  and  are  much  used, 
but  they  are  far  from  being  as  effective  as  the  pictures 
that  show  things  in  their  natural  colors. 

When  the  pictures  contain  more  than  one  color  the 
process  of  making  them  is  much  more  complicated  and 
expensive,  for  then  the  colors  must  be  applied  individ- 
ually by  hand  or  by  a  complicated  system  of  photography. 

INCOMBUSTIBLE  FILM. 

Because  of  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  the  daily 
papers  have  discovered  that  celluloid  is  a  product  of  gun 
cotton,  it  has  long  been  the  subject  of  scarehead  articles 
in  which  its  inflammability  has  been  greatly  exaggerated. 
Thrilling  tales  are  told  of  spontaneously  exploding  cellu- 
loid collars  and  of  yard-high  flames  leaping  from  combs 
and  mirror  backs.  It  has  even  been  reported  that  burn- 
ing celluloid  is  impossible  to  extinguish. 

Only  those  who  have  handled  this  material  know  the 
absurdity  of  these  statements,  especially  those  regard- 
ing its  tendency  toward  spontaneous  combustion.  While 
it  is  true  that  celluloid  is  inflammable,  and  even  highly 
inflammable,  it  is  only  possible  to  ignite  it  by  bringing  it 
into  contact  with  an  open  flame  or  by  subjecting  it  to  a 
temperature  of  several  hundred  degrees  in  the  field  of 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  47 

the  electric  arc.  Even  after  ignition,  it  is  much  more 
easily  controlled  than  burning  gasoline,  as  it  cannot  flow 
or  be  spread  by  the  application  of  water.  Its  chief 
danger  lies  in  the  rapidity  with  which  the  flames  spread 
through  the  mass  due  to  the  distillation  of  the  volatile 
constituents  in  its  composition.  This  vapor  can  only  be 
caused  by  a  generally  high  temperature  surrounding  the 
film ;  without  the  vapor,  it  ignites  little  easier  than  paper. 

A  great  number  of  experiments  have  been  conducted 
for  the  purpose  of  discovering  a  non-inflammable  sub- 
stitute for  the  gun  cotton  base,  or  for  the  camphor  which 
is  also  inflammable.  Several  attempts  have  been  made 
to  use  some  substance  that  will  take  the  place  of  cam- 
phor and  at  the  same  time  will  reduce  the  inflammability 
of  the  gun  cotton.  Substances  have  been  discovered 
that  have  been  successful  in  reducing  the  inflammability 
of  the  film,  but  which  have  introduced  serious  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  brittleness  or  in  the  reduction  of  trans- 
parency. 

Since  the  inflammability  of  the  gun  cotton  depends 
upon  the  presence  of  several  unstable  high  nitro-com- 
pounds,  attempts  have  been  made  to  break  up  or  deni- 
trate  the  substance.  Treating  the  celluloid  with  amyl 
or  methyl  silicate  is  one  process,  and  titration  with  an 
alcoholic  solution  of  calcium  chloride  in  acetone  is  an- 
other. In  the  latter  process  the  calcium  chloride  solu- 
tion, and  the  acetone,  in  the  proportion  of  ten  parts  of 
the  former  to  one  part  of  the  latter,  is  evaporated  and  is 
spread  in  thin  sheets  and  dried.  These  strips  are  diffi- 
cult to  ignite  and  do  not  burn  after  the  ignition  flame  is 
removed. 

A  compound  of  nitro-cellulose  and  acetyl-cellulose 
also  forms  a  slow-burning  compound.  Chloride  of  tin 
added  to  celluloid  while  in  a  softened  condition  produces 
a  film  that  will  burn  only  when  held  in  the  flame.  This 
compound  consists  of  one  hundred  parts  of  nitro-cellu- 
lose, four  hundred  parts  of  camphor,  and  one  hun- 
dred parts  of  alcohol.  Kohler's  substitute  is  prepared 
by  immersing  nitro-cellulose  in  acetic  ether  or  acetone; 
the  resulting  colodion  is  then  mixed  with  nitrated  cotton 
that  has  been  dipped  in  shellac,  Canada  balsam,  or  sim- 
ilar solution. 


48  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

Treating  cellulose  with  strong  caustic  potash  through 
which  carbon  disulphide  vapor  is  passed,  produces  a 
transparent  viscous  mass  which  approximates  celluloid. 
After  this  treatment  the  cellulose  is  removed  by  a  solu- 
tion of  salt  water.  Cellulose  is  soluble  in  acetic  acid, 
and  this  product,  "cellulose  acetate,"  is  not  inflammable. 

While  it  has  been  shown  that  there  are  several  sub- 
stitutes for  celluloid  that  are  non-inflammable,  it  may 
be  said  that  all  of  them  are  practically  failures  as  far  as 
moving  picture  film  is  concerned,  and  that  considerable 
work  remains  to  be  done  before  perfection  is  attained. 

'      WATERPROOF   FILM. 

Every  time  that  the  film  is  run  through  the  projector 
it  is  scratched  and  smudged  to  a  certain  extent  by  the 
sprockets,  and  even  by  the  friction  of  one  turn  of  the 
film  on  the  other  during  the  process  of  unwinding  from 
the  reels.  The  particles  of  dust  and  grit  that  float  in  the 
air  collect  between  the  turns  of  the  film  and  are  ground 
into  the  delicate  emulsion  by  the  friction.  In  addition 
to  the  scratches  and  dirt,  the  film  is  usually  well  supplied 
with  the  finger  marks  of  the  operator. 

The  scratches  and  dirt  produce  what  is  known  as  a 
"rainy  film,"  or  a  film  in  which  the  motion  of  the 
scratches  on  the  screen  appears  as  a  heavy  downpour  of 
rain.  A  film  in  this  condition  is  exceedingly  annoying 
to  an  audience  for  the  "rain"  not  only  obscures  the  pic- 
ture but  dazzles  and  tires  the  eyes  as  well. 

The  emulsion  side  of  the  film  gathers  the  dirt  and 
scratches  because  of  its  delicate  and  mat-like  surface, 
and  as  this  side  is  easily  softened  and  destroyed  by  water 
it  is  not  practicable  for  the  operator  to  wash  it  unless  it 
has  been  previously  protected  with  some  form  of  water- 
proof covering.  With  a  waterproof  coat  it  is  possible 
to  have  the  film  as  clean  at  the  end  of  the  season  as  at 
the  beginning. 

A  perfect  waterproof  coating  must  be  transparent, 
flexible,  and  yet  perfectly  hard  under  comparatively  high 
temperatures,  and  should  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  will 
take  the  cement  used  for  making  splices.  These  condi- 
tions have  been  met  by  a  substances  greatly  resembling 
celluloid  that  makes  the  emulsion  side  as  hard  and  shiny 
as  the  back  of  the  film.  This  coating  makes  the  film 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  49 

slide  more  easily  through  the  gate  of  the  projector,  and 
also  prevents  the  operating  troubles  due  to  the  fine  dust 
that  is  the  result  of  the  abrasion  of  the  emulsion. 

This  coating  is  applied  by  passing  the  film  through 
a  bath  of  the  compound  by  a  special  machine  designed 
for  this  purpose.  As  the  process  is  complicated,  and  the 
machines  large  and  unwieldy,  the  coating  is  done  at  the 
plant  of  the  waterproofing  company.  The  washing  is 
done  by  a  special  machine,  for  the  sake  of  speed,  at  the 
film  exchanges. 


CHAPTER  III. 

TAKING  THE   PICTURE. 

For  a  few  years  after  the  first  appearance  of  the 
Edison  Kinetoscope,  the  films  were  short  and  displayed 
only  the  most  common  of  everyday  events.  For  two  or 
three  years  a  five-minute  picture  showing  a  fire  engine 
passing  down  the  street,  or  a  locomotive  rushing  past  a 
way  station  were  exhibited  continuously.  The  moving 
picture  of  this  period  attracted  crowds,  not  because  of 
the  interest  of  the  subject,  but  simply  for  the  reason  that 
it  moved.  After  a  short  time  the  novelty  of  the  moving 
picture,  as  a  moving  picture,  wore  off  and  the  producer 
was  compelled  to  offer  something  more  than  a  machine 
demonstration.  It  steadily  degenerated  until  it  finally 
became  a  "chaser"  or  tail  piece  in  vaudeville  shows, 
whose  sole  purpose  was  to  warn  the  audience  politely 
that  the  show  had  ended. 

The  producers  soon  realized  that  the  motion  pic- 
ture had  reached  the  critical  stage  in  its  career,  and  began 
to  cast  about  for  features  that  would  reinstate  the  show 
in  the  public  regard.  The  first  attempt  that  led  to  the 
modern  story  picture  was  the  production  of  a  "comic" 
in  which  a  small  boy  and  a  garden  hose  were  the  prin- 
cipal characters.  The  popularity  of  this  "slap  stick" 
film  led  to  a  second  edifying  production  in  which  a  black 
mammy  was  shown  in  the  act  of  applying  a  smother  of 
soap  suds  to  several  of  her  pickaninnies.  However  crude 
these  pictures  may  have  been,  they  at  least  pointed  the 
way  to  public  approval.  The  public  clamored  for  a  story, 
and  finally  got  it. 

The  demand  for  plays  led  to  the  complete  transfor- 
mation of  the  motion  picture  business.  Studios  were 
built  with  complete  theatrical  equipment,  and  actors  were 
employed  from  the  legitimate  theaters.  Because  of  the 
length  of  the  new  production  means  were  found  by  which 
the  old  film  lengths  of  forty  feet  were  increased  to  two 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 


51 


hundred  feet,  which  could  be  spliced  end  to  end.  Writers 
had  discovered  a  new  market  for  their  literary  product, 
and  as  a  result  the  moving  picture  attained  a  new  dignity. 
The  public  soon  discovered  that  the  photoplay  was 
far  more  realistic  than  the  plays  produced  upon  the 
legitimate  stage,  and  that  the  range  of  subjects  that 
could  be  covered  by  the  film  were  almost  limitless.  In- 
stead of  using  scenery,  it  was  possible  to  produce  the 
act  among  the  actual  surroundings  demanded  by  the 


Fig.    25.      Typical    wardrobe    room,    showing   space   devoted   to   the   storage, 
making  and  alteration  of  the  players'  costumes. 

play.  When  the  producer  required  a  ship,  he  did  not 
build  one  of  painted  canvas  and  a  few  boards,  but  went 
and  photographed  the  group  of  players  on  board  an  actual 
ship  that  rode  an  actual  ocean.  The  photoplay  filled 
exactly  the  ever  increasing  demand  for  realism. 

About  this  time  the  film  manufacturers  discovered 
that  foreign  scenes  were  attractive  to  the  average  show 
patron,  with  the  result  that  the  "travel"  picture  came 
into  being.  These  pictures  were  not  only  entertaining 
but  were  instructive  as  well,  and  are  as  popular  now  as 


52  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

on  the  day  of  their  inception.  The  travel  picture  really 
marked  the  final  break  from  the  conventional  theatric 
atmosphere  and  placed  the  motion  picture  theater  on 
its  feet  as  an  independent  and  legitimate  form  of  enter- 
tainment. 

The  first  notable  film  of  this  period  was  the  three- 
reel  production  of  the  "Passion  Play,"  which  was  pro- 
iduced  in  New  York  by  Richard  Hollaman  from  the 
'manuscript  of  Salmi  Morse.  With  the  poor  facilities 
at  hand  at  that  time  for  taking  a  picture  of  this  char- 
acter, its  preparation  was  a  tremendous  task  and  a  great 
financial  risk,  for  no  one  knew  whether  it  would  make 
an  appeal  to  the  public  even  were  the  great  mechanical 
difficulties  overcome.  Beside  these  difficulties,  the  pro- 
ducers had  to  contend  with  the  opposition  of  the  clergy, 
who  had  been  instrumental  in  preventing  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  play  on  the  stage. 

No  expense  was  spared  in  its  preparation,  and  when 
it  finally  appeared  on  the  screen  il  immediately  became 
tremendously  popular,  even  among  the  clergy.  Sunday 
schools  attended  the  performances  en  mass,  day  after 
day  the  theater  was  crowded  with  people  whose  religious 
principles  had  up  to  that  time  prevented  them  from 
attending  a  place  of  amusement.  Its  success  may  be 
judged  from  the  fact  that  it  ran  continuously  in  one 
theater  for  six  months.  Prints  were  distributed  all  over 
Europe  and  were  exhibited  with  the  same  success  that 
had  met  the  production  at  home  This  was  the  first 
three-reel  film  that  had  ever  been  produced,  either  at 
home  or  abroad. 

The  tremendous  impetus  given  to  the  industry  by 
this  play,  and  by  the  numerous  travel  pictures  that  were 
being  shown,  started  the  moving  picture  boom,  and  from 
this  time  it  was  easy  sailing,  at  least  where  the  public 
was  concerned.  To  meet  the  increasing  demand  for 
novelties,  the  manufacturers  then  introduced  pictures  of 
topical  events,  pictures  showing  different  manufacturing 
processes,  scientific  films,  and  several  other  types  of 
educational  value.  The  motion  picture  projector  was 
becoming  an  instructor  as  well  as  an  entertainer. 

THE    CLASSIFICATION    OF    FILMS. 

At  the  present  stage  of  development,  the  films  are 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  53 

divided  according  to  their  subject  matter  into  seven 
principal  classes :  "Dramas,"  "Comedies,"  "Topicals," 
"Trick  Pictures,"  "Educationals"  and  "Industrials." 
According  to  our  idea,  the  subjects  are  arranged  in  the 
order  of  their  popularity,  although  not  according  to  their 
merit.  The  term  "educational"  covers  a  multitude  of 
subjects,  such  as  "scenic"  or  travel  pictures,  and  films 
that  treat  of  historical  or  scientific  subjects. 


Fig.  26.  Camera  man  equipped  and  ready  for  taking  a  military  scene. 
Note  the  \veight_  of  the  camera  and  film  that  must  be  carried  in  out 
door  work  of  this  nature. 

The  subjects  for  topical,  industrial,  and  educational 
films  are  gathered  in  the  same  way  that  news  items  are 
gathered  for  newspapers  or  magazines.  When  an  event 
of  unusual  interest  is  about  to  take  place,  the  producer 
sends  a  camera  man  to  that  locality  to  take  the  pictures. 
The  larger  manufacturers  have  camera  men  constantly 
on  the  road,  seeking  for  novelties  or  news  items,  and  as  a 
result  there  are  few  events  of  general  interest  that 
escape  the  lens  of  the  moving  picture  camera.  The  taking 
of  these  pictures  is  usually  an  exciting  and  hazardous 


54  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

occupation,  and  contrary  to  the  general  opinion  they  are 
seldom  "faked."  Pictures  have  been  taken  from  bal- 
loons, aeroplanes,  from  the  tops  of  unfinished  sky- 
scrapers, and  on  the  battlefield. 

Dramatic  films  which  tell  a  story  through  a  series 
of  related  incidents  are  equivalent  to  the  drama  of  the 
"legitimate"  theater  in  all  of  the  essential  details,  except 
of  course  that  the  action  is  expressed  entirely  in  panto- 
mime. The  incidents  of  the  film  drama,  like  that  of  the 
legitimate  drama,  are  based  on  a  story  or  manuscript 
known  as  a  "scenario."  Provided  with  the  scenario,  the 


Fig.  27.  Taking  the  pictures  of  a  military  scene  in  the  field.  The 
production  of  this  play  necessitated  the  employment  of  several  hundred 
'supes,"  and  took  several  weeks  of  rehearsal  before  the  action  was 
ready  to  film. 

players  go  through  the  play  before  the  camera  as  in  an 
ordinary  theatrical  performance,  the  camera  playing  the 
role  of  "audience."  The  interior  scenes  of  these  plays 
are  enacted  in  the  studio  of  the  manufacturer.  The 
exterior  views  are  of  course  taken  at  the  place  designated 
by  the  scenario,  which  may  be  any  place  south  of  the 
Arctic  circle  or  north  of  the  Antarctic.  Trick  pictures 
are  invariably  studio  productions. 

Film  comedies  correspond  to  the  comedies  of  the 
stage,  and  are  photographed  in  the  same  way  as  the 
dramatic  films,  either  in  the  studio  or  at  some  place  that 
is  in  accordance  with  the  scenario.  As  comedies  are 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 


55 


a  K 

t*  a 


56  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

based  upon  some  story,  a  scenario  is  provided  for  their 
production,  similar  in  nature  to  that  furnished  in  the 
dramatic  films. 

Trick  pictures  are  really  sleight  of  hand  perform- 
ances that  are  made  possible  by  the  special  manipula- 
tion of  the  camera.  By  running  the  camera  backwards, 
or  by  substituting  dummy  objects  for  the  real  ones,  the 
photographer  is  able  to  perform  many  wonderful  feats 
that  are  deceiving  to  the  audience.  The  effects  obtained 
in  trick  pictures  usually  border  on  the  comedy  form, 
although  some  of  the  illusions,  notably  the  vision  pro- 
jection, are  sometimes  utilized  in  the  dramas.  Trick 
pictures  require  a  great  ingenuity  both  in  the  conception 
of  the  trick  and  in  the  mechanical  features  of  the  camera 
manipulation,  and  are  deservedly  popular. 

In  the  early  days  of  motion  picture  photography, 
the  stage  was  located  out  of  doors  in  a  small  shed  which 
was  left  open  in  the  front  and  closed  in  on  the  remain- 
ing three  sides.  The  enclosed  sides  served  both  as  a  pro- 
tection against  the  weather  and  as  a  support  for  the 
scenery.  In  the  majority  of  cases  there  was  no  roof 
over  the  stage.  The  floor  of  the  little  building  was 
elevated  a  few  feet  above  the  ground  and  served  as  a 
stage  on  which  the  plays  were  enacted.  The  camera 
was  installed  in  a  small  house  directly  opposite  to  the 
open  side  of  the  stage  so  that  the  lens  could  take  in  the 
full  width  of  the  building. 

Both  the  studio  and  the  camera  house  were  mounted 
on  a  common  platform  that  was  free  to  turn  in  any  direc- 
tion like  a  turntable,  so  that  the  open  side  of  the  stage 
could  be  faced  toward  the  sun.  By  this  means  it  was 
possible  to  secure  any  desired  illumination  on  the  scene. 
As  it  was  possible  to  take  pictures  in  this  type  of  studio 
only  under  favorable  weather  conditions,  and  for  the 
reason  that  the  wind  caused  unnatural  effects  on  the 
draperies  and  clothing  of  the  players,  it  was  soon  aban- 
doned for  the  glass  enclosed  studio  of  the  present  day. 

The  present  studios  are  enormous  glass-enclosed 
buildings,  greatly  resembling  giant  hot  houses  in  their 
external  elevation,  and  are  generally  of  the  steel  frame 
type  of  construction.  Both  the  roof  and  sides  consist 
of  continuous  glass  paneling,  so  that  it  is  practically  as 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 


57 


light  in  the  studio  as  out  of  doors.  Steel  trusses  carried 
from  columns  on  the  side  do  away  with  all  intermediate 
posts,  giving  a  clear  floor  space.  With  a  studio  of  this 
construction  it  is  possible  to  carry  on  the  work  under 
almost  any  weather  conditions,  with  natural  light. 


Fig.  29.  Showing  how  an  "industrial"  film  is  taken  in  a  factory.  The 
rows  of  vertical  tubes  on  the  right  of  the  picture  are  Cooper-Hewitt 
mercury  vapor  lamps  used  for  illumination  of  the  dark  interior.  A 
film  of  this  nature  has  a  great  educational  value  in  the  motion  picture 
theater,  and  is  of  great  value  to  the  manufacturer  who  wishes  to  have 
his  customers  become  interested  in  the  inner  workings  of  his  plant. 

At  night  or  in  very  dark  weather  the  studios  resort  to 
artificial  lighting,  this  being  accomplished  by  the  use  of 
electric  arcs  or  mercury  vapor  lamps,  the  latter  being  the 
most  economical.  The  green  light  given  by  the  mercury 
vapor  lamps  is  very  effective  in  registering  the  image  on 
the  photographic  film,  and  requires  a  minimum  of  cur- 
rent for  a  given  illumination.  These  tubes  are  usually 
arranged  in  groups  of  six  tubes  per  group,  and  are  hung 


58  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

either  from  the  roof  trusses  or  the  side  of  the  building. 
Usually  eight  groups  of  lamps  are  used  for  the  illumina- 
tion of  a  single  stage  setting,  and  these  lamps  are  some- 
times supplemented  by  arc  lamps  hung  from  the  trusses. 
In  some  studios  it  is  possible  to  concentrate  over  100,000 
candle  power  on  a  stage. 

The  scene  itself  occupies  but  a  small  amount  of 
space  on  the  studio  floor,  the  width  of  the  set  usually 
being  about  14  feet,  and  with  the  enormous  floor  area  at 
the  disposal  of  the  director,  it  is  possible  to  conduct  sev- 
eral scenes  at  the  same  time.  These  small  spaces  are 
marked  out  on  the  floor,  and  the  scenes  or  wall  sets  are 
erected  inside  of  the  space,  forming  in  most  cases  a  three- 
sided  box  that  is  open  at  the  top  for  the  admission  of 
light.  When  an  actor  is  to  disappear  from  the  scene  he 
simply  walks  through  the  door  in  the  set  and  is  imme- 
diately out  of  the  range  of  the  camera.  The  ease  with 
which  a  player  may  unconsciously  disappear  from  a 
scene  in  which  he  is  supposed  to  be  taking  part  requires 
constant  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  camera  man  and 
director. 

The  scenery  used  in  the  studio  resembles  that  used 
on  the  stage  except  that  no  colors  need  be  used  on  the 
canvas.  Neutral  tints,  or  plain  black  and  white  outlines 
are  more  desirable  for  the  reason  that  colors  such  as  red 
or  blue  give  misleading  color  values  on  the  film.  The 
walls  used  in  interior  views  are  only  large  enough  to 
cover  the  field  of  the  camera  and  are  built  in  section  for 
ease  of  handling.  As  the  plays  vary  in  character  and 
period,  it  is  seldom  that  the  same  set  can  be  used  more 
than  once.  This  constant  change  in  the  scenery  calls 
for  a  large  force  of  scene  painters  and  stage  carpenters. 

The  "property"  rooms  of  the  large  film  manufactur- 
ers, in  which  the  properties  or  appliances  used  in  the  play 
are  kept,  contain  nearly  every  conceivable  object  known 
to  man.  Guns,  stuffed  animals,  bottles,  druggists'  signs, 
policemen's  clubs,  brass  beds,  wooden  beds,  hoop  skirts, 
cannon,  harness,  clocks,  furniture  of  all  classes  and  age, 
and  a  tremendous  catalogue  of  other  things  that  are  far 
too  numerous  to  list  in  the  limits  of  this  book  are  con- 
stantly kept  in  stock.  As  can  be  imagined,  a  very  con- 
siderable fortune  is  tied  up  in  the  property  room  alone. 


PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING  59 


60  MOTION     PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

As  the  film  shows  all  periods  of  history  and  every 
condition  of  life,  a  very  extensive  wardrobe  is  required. 
It  is  claimed  that  one  studio  that  specializes  in  historical 
and  military  subjects  has  over  eight  thousand  costumes 
ready  for  instant  use.  At  a  moment's  notice  the  cos- 
turner  can  supply  a  small  army  with  uniforms,  equip  a 
tribe  of  Indians  with  their  tribal  costume  or  produce  the 
most  modern  of  ball  costumes  for  a  society  play.  High 
hats  or  the  furs  of  an  arctic  explorer  are  equally  in 
evidence  in  this  remarkable  department. 

THE    PRODUCER. 

The  producer  is  the  principal  factor  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  studio  and  in  the  production  of  the  plays. 


Fig.    31.     Studying  the  strength  of  a  fly.     An  example  of  an  educational 
film    subject. 

In  commercial  life  he  would  be  called  a  superintendent, 
and  in  the  theater  a  stage  manager.  From  the  time 
that  the  scenario  is  first  put  to  his  attention  until  the 
negative  has  been  delivered  to  the  developing  depart- 
ment, he  is  constantly  on  the  job  in  directing  the  work 
of  the  players  and  scenic  mechanics.  On  the  receipt 
of  the  scenario,  the  producer,  or  director  as  he  is  some- 
times called,  makes  such  additions  as  he  thinks  necessary, 
and  notes  the  details  of  the  scenes  and  properties  re- 
quired for  the  play.  After  the  lists  of  scenes  and  prop- 
erties have  been  made,  orders  are  given  to  the  scenic  and 
property  departments  for  the  making  of  the  various  sets. 
Costumes  are  selected  and  in  the  case  of  an  outdoor  scene, 
the  producer  determines  on  the  proper  locality  for  the 
action.  While  this  work  is  in  progress,  he  selects  the 
players  and  calls  for  a  rehearsal. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 


61 


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62  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

If  the  scene  to  be  rehearsed  is  a  studio  act,  the  stage 
is  set  completely,  and  the  actors  appear  in  full  costume. 
The  camera  is  set  in  position  so  that  the  operator  may 
become  familiar  with  the  act,  and  the  rehearsal  pro- 
ceeds. After  a  number  of  additions  or  subtractions 
made  by  the  producer  to  improve  the  scene  or  to  bring 
it  into  the  time  limits  of  the  film,  it  finally  receives  his 
approval,  and  the  camera  is  started.  If  any  mistake  is 
made  during  the  filming  of  the  play,  the  film  is  destroyed 
and  the  act  is  repeated  until  it  meets  the  approval  of  the 
producer.  In  the  case  of  films  that  are  difficult  to 
obtain,  or  expensive,  two  cameras  or  a  double  film  camera 
are  used,  so  that  there  will  be  no  chance  of  losing  the 
act  through  a  light  struck  film  or  an  accident  in  the  de- 
veloping process.  When  two  films  are  taken  by  two  inde- 
pendent cameras  a  choice  may  be  had  between  the  two 
films,  one  of  which  will  undoubtedly  be  better  than  the 
other. 

In  the  case  of  out  of  door  scenes,  the  play  is  gener- 
ally rehearsed  in  the  studio  before  going  into  the  field. 
This  practice  is  always  followed  in  the  case  of  street 
scenes,  where  the  throngs  of  spectators  would  interfere 
with  a  prolonged  rehearsal.  The  time  in  the  field  is  cut 
down  to  the  lowest  possible  limit,  for  the  weather  is 
likely  to  change  at  any  moment  and  the  expense  of  main- 
taining the  players  in  the  field  is  much  greater  than  in 
the  studio. 

THE   PLAYERS. 

The  players  are  frequently  recruited  from  the  thea- 
ters, although  there  are  many  motion  picture  actors 
that  have  been  developed  in  the  studios  simply  through 
their  association  with  that  line  of  work.  It  is  customary 
to  hire  some  actors  for  a  day  at  a  time  because  of  the 
fluctuations  in  the  studio  demands.  One  day,  the  pro- 
ducer may  require  as  high  as  fifty  players  and  on  the 
next  less  than  half  that  number,  depending  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  play  then  being  produced.  For  the  leading 
parts,  the  producing  company  maintains  a  small  body 
of  players  known  as  the  "stock  company,"  which  are 
kept  continuously  in  the  service  of  the  company  at  a 
fixed  salary. 

The  selection  of  the  actors  and  actresses  is  by  no 
means  an  easy  task  for  they  must  not  only  be  masters 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING  63 

in  the  art  of  pantomime,  but  must  look  their  part  as  well. 


The  camera  is  a  merciless  critic,  and  exaggerates  every 
awkward  gesture  or  facial  peculiarity  of  the  player,  and 


64 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 


defects  that  would  not  be  noticed  on  the  stage  are  glar- 
ingly apparent  on  the  screen.  It  is  almost  impossible  to 
"doctor"  up  a  character  with  grease  paint,  for  the  magni- 
fication of  the  projector  would  make  such  an  attempt 
ridiculous.  It  is  almost  impossible  for  an  old  man  to 
take  the  part  of  a  young  man,  or  vice  versa,  and  deceive 
the  audience.  An  old  woman  may  assume  the  part  of 
a  girl  in  the  legitimate  drama  and  succeed,  but  never  be- 
fore the  camera. 

Stage  make-up  is  out  of  the  question  in  the  motion 
picture  studio  for  the  pinks  and  yellows  so  commonly 
used  in  getting  flesh  tints  are  distorted  in  color  value  in 
the  film.  Any  tint  containing  red  is  recorded  on  the 
film  at  least  in  three  shades  darker  than  the  original 
color,  for  this  color  has  practically  no  actinic  value. 
As  the  areas  covered  by  the  red  undergo  no  changes  due 
to  the  reduction  of  the  silver  in  the  emulsion,  the  posi- 
tive is  printed  black  under  these  transparent  spots  in 
the  negative. 

In  nearly  all  cases  the  face  is  first  thoroughly  whit- 
ened and  then  tinted  with  yellow  so  that  any  subsequent 
color  that  may  be  applied  will  stand  out  in  bold  relief, 
and  also  for  the  reason  that  the  face  will  appear  white 
instead  of  grey,  as  would  be  the  case  with  the  natural 
color  of  the  complexion.  The  lips  and  the  area  sur- 
rounding the  eyes  are  tinted  with  a  color  having 
a  bluish  cast  such  as  heliotrope  or  mauve.  When  seen 
in  the  sunlight,  the  make  up  of  the  motion  picture  actor 
presents  a  most  ghastly  appearance. 

In  spite  of  their  extended  experience  on  the  stage, 
there  are  but  few  actors  who  have  the  faculty  of  expres- 
sing themselves  in  pantomime,  even  in  the  minor  roles. 
When  an  actor  is  discovered  that  possesses  this  rare  gift 
he  is  frequently  put  in  the  "stock  company"  maintained 
by  the  producing  company  at  a  fixed  monthly  salary. 
Should  he  have  a  specialty  in  which  he  appears  to  the 
best  advantage,  he  is  made  the  "star"  in  some  series  of 
films  having  the  same  title,  such  as  the  "Broncho  Billy 
Series"  issued  by  the  Essanay  Company.  In  a  film  of  this 
nature,  the  star  is  given  a  characteristic  name  which 
appears  on  all  of  the  films  in  the  series,  each  issue 
representing  some  episode  in  the  life  of  the  hero. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 


65 


TAKING  STUDIO  PICTURES. 

At  the  time  arranged  for  the  rehearsal,  the  company 
assembles  on  its  allotted  stage  and  receives  specific  in- 
structions from  the  producer  in  regard  to  the  "business" 
on  the  stage,  how  to  make  their  entrance  and  exit,  and 
also  instructions  regarding  the  dialogue.  The  producer 
usually  goes  through  the  principal  parts  of  the  play  to 
convey  a  general  idea  of  his  requirements  before  the  re- 
hearsal. After  this  demonstration  the  players  go  through 


Fig.  34.  An  example  of  an  "educational"  series.  The  upper  pictures  are 
microscopic  views  of  the  house  fly  showing  its  tongue  and  feet.  The 
lower  pictures  were  taken  through  the  glass  sides  of  an  aquarium  of 
different  forms  of  amphibious  life. 

the  play  for  the  first  time,  the  cues  being  given  by  the 
producer,  and  if  the  action  seems  to  lag,  he  immediately 
jumps  into  the  scene,  assumes  some  part,  and  stirs  things 
up  until  the  actors  have  grasped  his  idea  of  the  speed  and 
spirit. 

Time  after  time,  the  scene  is  rehearsed,  little  modi- 
fications and  additions  being  made  each  time,  until  the 
show  goes  with  the  proper  swing.  Often  the  company 
is  made  to  go  through  the  action  a  dozen  or  more  times 
before  everything  is  satisfactory.  When  a  scene  re- 


66  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

quires  animal  actors,  the  rehearsals  are  almost  number- 
less, for  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  keep  within  the  field 
of  the  camera. 

During  the  last  rehearsals,  when  the  action  is  nearly 
perfect  and  the  rough  edges  are  worn  off  of  the  work, 
the  camera  man  and  the  producer  start  to  take  the  time 
of  the  scenes.  Watch  in  hand,  they  follow  the  work 
through  from  end  to  end,  noting  parts  of  the  business 
that  could  be  trimmed  out,  in  the  event  of  overtimed 
action.  When  the  final  rehearsal  is  completed,  the 


Fig.  35.  One  method  of  making  a  well  known  form  of  "trick"  picture.  By 
laying  the  scene  flat  on  the  studio  floor,  and  taking  the  view  trom 
an  elevated  position,  the  man  will  appear  to  the  audience  as  crawling 
up  the  side  of  the  building. 

camera  man  and  the  producer  compare  notes  regarding 
the  time  taken,  and  the  time  allowed  on  the  manuscript. 
Should  the  time  be  too  long,  the  producer  condenses  the 
action  by  ordering  the  players  to  make  quicker  entries, 
or  by  cutting  a  dialogue,  a  few  seconds  may  be  gained. 
When  enough  has  been  clipped,  according  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  producer,  the  play  is  again  rehearsed  with 
the  alterations,  and  is  again  timed.  If  the  scene  is  still 
too  long,  further  alterations  and  rehearsals  are  made 
until  it  is  made  within  the  limited  time. 

All  is  now  ready  for  the  filming  of  the  scene.    The 
players  that  are  to  be  "discovered"  at  the  opening  of 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING  6? 


S 


the  picture  take  their  places  on  the  stage,  and  the  camera 
man  makes  the 'necessary  adjustments  to  his  machine. 


Fig.  36.  "The  Magic  Coffee  Pot"  with  the  mystery  removed.  This  is 
an  example  of  that  class  of  trick  picture  in  which  inanimate  objects 
appear  to  go  through  various  evolutions  of  their  own  accord.  _  The 
coffee  pot  in  this  case  is  suspended  by  fine  wires  that  are  invisible 
in  the  finished  picture. 

As   a  guide  to  the  limits   of  the  camera,   conspicuous 
"markers"  are  placed  at  the  extreme  edges  of  the  scene 


68  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

to  be  covered  by  the  camera.  These  enable  the  camera 
man  to  determine  whether  the  players  are  "off"  or  "in" 
the  scene. 

At  the  word  "Ready,"  given  by  the  producer,  the 
camera  man  starts  cranking  the  machine  and  the  actors 
stand  alert  for  their  cues  to  enter.  An  instant  after  fol- 
lows the  order,  "Start  your  action."  From  this  instant, 
the  studio,  or  at  least  that  part  of  it  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  stage  is  a  bedlam  of  noises.  The  players  jabber  their 
almost  meaningless  lines,  the  producer  shouts  his  direc- 
tions to  the  players  in  which  he  is  accompanied  by  the 
camera  man.  "You're  out,  Kelly,"  "Faster-faster-faster," 
"Cheer  up  Miss  Davis,"  "Up  in  front,  you  with  the  hoop 
skirts,"  "Not  so  far,"  "Roll  your  eyes,"  etc.,  etc.  From 
the  direction  of  the  stage  come  the  broken  fragments  of 
the  dialogue,  "I  never,  never  will  leave  you."  "Ouch," 
"My  boy,"  "I  love  you,"  and  so  forth.  The  players  are 
worked  up  to  an  exciting  pitch,  and  the  play  is  at  its  height, 
when  the  eye  of  the  producer  catches  an  error  in  the  action 
or  an  actor  off  stage.  "Stop,"  he  shouts.  The  camera  im- 
mediately stops  its  purring,  the  offender  is  treated  to 
some  forcible  remarks  from  the  director,  the  spoiled  film 
is  thrown  out,  and  the  play  is  started  all  over  again. 
This  may  happen  several  times  before  a  perfect  film  is 
obtained. 

Only  persistence  and  patience  on  the  part  of  the 
producer  will  obtain  good  results  in  a  film  play.  The 
management  of  the  actors  before  the  camera  is  a  far 
more  exacting  task  than  on  the  stage,  for  in  the  studio 
every  second  counts.  Every  second  means  a  foot  of  film, 
and  film  costs  money.  Situations  must  be  handled  that 
occur  in  no  other  branch  of  the  amusement  field  and  re- 
quire instant  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  producer.  The 
greater  proportion  of  the  actors  employed  are  not  thor- 
oughly conversant  with  the  requirements  of  the  studio, 
and  are  not  quick  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  new  con- 
ditions under  which  they  are  working. 

At  the  close  of  a  successful  scene,  the  producer 
shouts  "stop,"  as  a  signal  to  the  operator  to  cease  his 
cranking. 

"How  many  feet,"  asks  the  producer  of  the  operator. 

"One  hundred  and  sixteen"  is  the  answer. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  69 

If  this  is  within  the  prescribed  limits,  the  next  scene 
is  started,  that  is  if  it  is  a  studio  scene.  If  there  are 
several  intervening  scenes  that  are  exterior  views,  they 
are  omitted  for  the  time  being  and  the  next  studio  scene 
is  undertaken.  To  economize  in  time,  the  next  scene  has, 
in  all  probability,  been  set  up  in  the  vicinity  of  the  first, 
during  the  time  in  which  the  first  was  photographed.  The 
players  now  move  from  the  first  to  the  second  stage  where 
the  camera  is  again  set  up. 

YARD  PICTURES. 

Nearly  every  firm  has  a  f  enced-in  space  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  studio  where  most  of  the  outdoor  scenes  are  taken 
that  require  special  settings.  In  the  "yard"  will  be  found 
reproductions  of  foreign  and  historic  buildings,  mimic 
lakes,  and  miniature  mountains,  in  fact,  all  scenic  effects 
that  are  too  large  for  the  indoor  studio.  The  architecture 
of  the  buildings  in  the  yard  is  of  the  most  varied  descrip- 
tion, ranging  from  Grecian  temples  to  Esquimaux  huts, 
and  from  old  German  castles  to  Chinese  pagodas.  By 
simply  revolving  the  camera  on  its  axis,  the  operator  can 
cover  a  thousand  years  of  architectural  development. 

Generally  the  construction  of  the  yard  scenes  is  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  those  in  the  studio,  except  that  they  are  of 
a  sturdier  and  more  permanent  type.  The  majority  of 
the  buildings  are  provided  with  only  two  or  three  sides, 
as  with  the  interior  scenes  of  the  studio,  and  are  only 
high  enough  to  cover  the  field  of  the  camera,  when  taken 
from  a  comparatively  short  distance.  Roof  scenes  extend 
only  a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  so  that  the  player  in 
leaping  from  the  roof  of  a  building  has  only  a  short  dis- 
tance to  fall.  By  directing  the  camera  upwardly,  so  that 
the  ground  line  is  not  shown  on  the  film,  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  some  very  realistic  effects  in  fire  scenes. 

The  tank,  which  is  included  in  the  yard  equipment  of 
every  large  plant,  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  the  prop- 
erties. By  suitably  disposing  the  scenery  around  its 
edges,  it  can  be  made  to  represent  any  imaginable  body 
of  water  from  a  brook  to  an  ocean.  The  tank  at  the  plant 
of  the  Selig  Polyscope  Company's  plant  contains  about 
sixty  thousand  gallons  with  a  depth  of  about  three  feet. 
It  is  supplied  with  row  boats,  small  bridges,  and  at  one 


70  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND   EXHIBITING 

end  is  provided  with  an  extension  that  forms  the  mill  race 
for  a  small  mill  that  is  built  near  the  edge. 

Near  the  center  of  the  yard  is  a  cylinder  about  thirty 
feet  in  diameter  which  is  mounted  on  a  turn  table  device 
so  that  it  can  be  rotated  rapidly  in  a  horizontal  plane. 
On  the  outer  surface  of  the  cylinder  is  stretched  a  can- 
vas scene,  usually  of  mountainous  or  broken  country. 
When  the  camera  is  placed  in  front  of  the  rotating  cylin- 
der, the  speed  of  the  screen  gives  an  effect  of  traveling 
through  the  country  displayed  on  the  canvas.  This  effect 
is  heightened  by  placing  a  car  interior  scene  between  the 
camera  and  the  cylinder  so  that  the  latter  may  be  seen 
through  the  car  windows. 

TAKING  TOPICAL  FILMS. 

The  topical  films,  in  which  the  events  of  the  day  are 
shown,  are  fast  becoming  one  of  the  most  important 
mediums  of  distributing  news  items.  There  are  but  few 
theaters  in  the  United  States  that  do  not  display  one  of 
the  numerous  "weekly  reviews."  While  the  papers  may 
print  the  news  several  days  in  advance  of  the  release  of 
the  film,  the  items  are  never  stale  when  projected  on  the 
screen,  for  the  pictures  impress  the  audience  with  en- 
tirely new  ideas  concerning  the  subject.  To  hear  about 
an  event  is  one  thing,  to  see  it  is  another. 

The  motion  picture  theater  patron  is  kept  in  touch 
with  the  progress  of  the  world  through  the  medium  of  the 
topical  film  for  there  are  motion  picture  operators  in  all 
countries  whose  sole  duty  is  to  keep  informed  as  to  the 
events  taking  place  in  their  particular  section  of  the  map. 
Everything  from  a  prize  fight  to  the  funeral  services  of  a 
king  are  subjects  for  the  topical,  it  being  in  fact  an  ani- 
mated newspaper  of  which  the  camera  man  is  the  re- 
porter. 

The  success  of  the  film  depends  entirely  upon  the 
judgment  and  aggressiveness  of  the  operator  in  over- 
coming the  opposition  usually  raised  by  the  police  or  per- 
sons in  control  of  the  proceedings.  The  camera  man 
must  be  a  diplomat,  a  photographer,  and  a  producer  rolled 
into  one.  He  must  be  absolutely  fearless,  for  his  duties 
will  take  him  from  a  shipwreck  to  a  battle  field  or  mine 
disaster,  with  little  side  trips  in  aeroplanes  and  balloons. 


MOTION    PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING  71 

Many  a  camera  man  has  gone  out  on  a  job  and  never  re- 
turned. 

Speed  is  a  most  essential  item  in  the  production  of  a 
topical,  for,  as  in  newspaper  work,  one  film  company 
tries  to  beat  the  other  to  the  screen,  or  to  obtain  a 
"scoop."  Every  minute  that  elapses  between  the  taking 
of  the  picture  and  its  delivery  to  the  theater  means  money 
to  the  film  manufacturer,  for  his  efforts  and  expenditures 
will  be  in  vain  if  his  rival  projects  the  picture  before  he 
gets  it  on  the  market.  This  adds  another  burden  on  the 
operator,  for  he  must  not  only  get  a  favorable  position  for 
the  taking  of  the  picture,  but  must  also  make  arrange- 
ments for  its  prompt  delivery.  In  the  isolated  parts  of 
the  world,  where  the  topical  operator  performs  most  of 
his  work,  prompt  delivery  requires  careful  management 
and  good  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  camera  man. 

Another  feature  that  adds  to  the  difficulty  of  taking 
topicals  is  the  fact  that  there  can  be  no  rehearsal  of  the 
action,  and  therefore  the  operator  has  to  estimate  the  best 
camera  positions  and  the  length  of  the  film.  To  be  caught 
short  of  film  in  taking  an  important  event  is  a  calamity, 
for  it  is  not  easily  procured  at  short  notice,  and  if  the 
home  plant  is  at  a  considerable  distance,  it  means  failure. 

An  operator  was  sent  to  New  York  by  a  Chicago  firm 
to  obtain  pictures  at  the  terminus  of  the  cross  country 
flight  made  by  the  aviator  Atwood.  He  was  supplied  with 
only  two  reels  of  film,  for  it  was  expected  that  there 
would  only  be  a  few  hundred  feet  of  film  needed.  On  the 
day  of  his  arrival,  a  fire  broke  out  in  a  tailor  shop  that 
offered  an  opportunity  for  a  thrilling  picture.  This  placed 
the  operator  in  an  unfortunate  position,  for  he  had  only 
enough  film  for  one  event,  either  that  of  the  aeroplane  or 
that  of  the  fire.  He  chose  the  latter,  and  was  rewarded 
by  a  most  spectacular  picture,  in  fact  it  was  the  best  fire 
picture  that  any  firm  had  ever  had  the  opportunity  to 
produce.  He  packed  up  immediately  and  started  home, 
believing  that  he  had  chosen  the  best  course,  but  was  dis- 
agreeably surprised  to  find,  after  the  development,  that 
the  board  of  censorship  refused  to  sanction  the  film.  His 
trip,  of  course,  was  a  total  loss,  simply  because  of  the  lack 
of  film. 


72  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

PICTURES  IN  THE  FIELD. 

The  out-door  scenes  that  form  a  part  of  neany  every 
film  story  are  the  most  realistic  and  interesting  parts  of 
the  film.  When  properly  selected  they  not  only  add  to 
the  atmosphere  of  the  play,  but  have  a  certain  educational 
value  as  well.  Locating  the  scenes  among  the  Atlantic 
fisheries  or  in  the  mining  regions  of  the  West,  for  ex- 
ample, carries  the  stay-at-home  show  patron  into  inter- 
esting and  unfrequented  places,  and  gives  the  film  the 
value  of  an  industrial  or  travelogue.  Scenes  laid  in  the 
streets  of  large  cities  are  of  great  interest  to  the  audi- 
ence of  rural  theaters,  and  scenes  of  ranch  life  are  of  the 
same  value  to  the  city  man. 

While  it  is  possible  to  make  an  acceptable  street 
scene  in  the  studio  or  yard,  with  painted  scenery  in  which 
no  foliage  appears,  no  studio  scene  can  be  made  of  natural 
objects  that  will  in  the  least  deceive  the  audience.  All 
hand-created  scenes  including  trees  or  shrubbery  lack 
entirely  the  detail  and  beauty  of  the  original  and  in  the 
majority  of  cases  the  studio  canvases  contain  some  in- 
congruity that  entirely  dispels  the  illusion  for  which  they 
were  made. 

The  demand  for  natural  settings  has  resulted  in  the 
establishment  of  branch  studios  all  over  the  country,  each 
branch  maintaining  a  corps  of  competent  players.  By 
this  means  a  single  manufacturer  can  produce  plays  in 
any  desired  natural  setting  with  a  minimum  of  trouble  or 
delay.  "Westerns"  are  invariably  taken  in  their  proper 
locale,  the  "supes"  usually  being  drawn  from  the  ranches 
and  towns  surrounding  the  studio. 

The  great  majority  of  the  Western  studios  are  lo- 
cated in  California  because  of  the  great  variations  in 
scenic  effects  that  can  be  obtained  within  a  short  radius. 
The  Pacific  Ocean  affords  opportunities  for  marine  views, 
the  Sierras  and  the  Mojave  Desert  which  are  within  a 
few  hours  of  the  principal  studios,  have  formed  the  back- 
ground for  many  historical  and  scenic  films.  The  climatic 
conditions  are  ideal  for  motion  picture  photography,  it 
being  possible  to  obtain  out-door  views  in  semi-tropical 
settings  during  nearly  every  season  of  the  year. 

When  the  producer  has  selected  a  suitable  site  for 
the  out-door  scenes,  and  has  rehearsed  the  act  in  the 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  73 

studio,  the  players  are  sent  to  the  locality,  costumed  and 
made  up.  If  it  is  to  be  a  street  scene,  great  secrecy  is  ob- 
served until  the  camera  has  been  set  up  to  prevent  inter- 
ference from  the  throngs  of  spectators  that  are  sure  to 
gather  in  the  vicinity.  The  players  are  now  put  through 
their  parts  as  rapidly  as  possible  under  the  direction  of 
the  producer,  the  method  of  procedure  being  exactly  the 
same  as  with  the  studio  pictures.  Street  pictures  require 
all  of  the  resource  of  the  producer  in  keeping  the  curiosity 
stricken  spectators  from  getting  into  the  field  of  the 
camera,  or  from  confusing  the  players  in  their  work. 
Often  times  a  dummy  camera  with  a  fake  show  in  front 
of  it  is  used  to  draw  the  attention  from  the  main  event. 
The  relief  company  making  more  noise  than  the  one  act- 
ually being  filmed  is  usually  successful  in  attracting  the 
majority  of  the  audience. 

Many  comical  incidents,  themselves  being  worthy  of 
being  filmed,  are  constantly  encountered  by  the  street 
scene  producer.  Police  interference  is  one  of  the  most 
common  interruptions,  especially  with  scenes  of  a  highly 
dramatic  nature  in  which  the  characters  enter  into  a 
mimic  combat.  Attracted  by  the  crowd  and  the  uproar, 
and  not  noticing  the  camera,  the  unsuspecting  policeman 
has  often  broken  up  the  work  and  arrested  the  players  on 
serious  charges,  in  spite  of  the  explanations  of  the  pro- 
ducer. One  company  was  held  for  several  hours  on  a 
charge  of  attempted  arson  before  the  police  judge  could 
be  convinced  that  he  had  broken  up  an  exceedingly  real- 
istic photo-play. 

Trick  street  scenes,  commonly  known  as  "stop"  pic- 
tures, in  which  some  extraordinary  accident  occurs,  re- 
quire a  comparatively  long  time  for  their  production  and, 
therefore,  must  be  taken  on  some  quiet  side  street,  or  at  a 
time  when  the  street  is  practically  deserted.  Pictures 
that  show  a  person  being  knocked  down  by  an  automobile 
or  being  run  over  by  a  street  car,  are  really  trick  pictures, 
being  obtained  by  several  stoppages  of  the  camera,  dur- 
ing which  time  a  dummy  is  substituted  for  the  real  player. 
By  careful  manipulation  of  the  camera  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  very  realistic  illusions  by  taking  the  pictures  and 
shifting  the  object  alternately. 


74  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

One  picture  of  this  class  was  very  clever  both  in  the 
conception  of  scheme  and  in  its  execution.  At  the  open- 
ing of  the  film  a  man  was  shown  lying  on  the  street  car 
tracks  in  the  foreground.  A  car  rushed  past,  cut  off  both 
legs  at  the  knee,  and  tossed  them  into  the  gutter.  A  num- 
ber of  people,  horrified  at  the  accident,  rushed  to  his  aid, 
but  to  their  surprise  the  victim  slowly  raised  himself  from 
the  track,  smiled  calmly  upon  his  would-be  rescuers,  and 
beckoned  to  the  severed  members  lying  in  the  gutter. 
Finally  one  of  the  legs  was  seen  to  start  in  his  direction, 
hesitate,  and  then  attach  itself  to  the  stump  in  its  former 
position.  This  having  been  accomplished,  the  other  leg 
performed  the  same  miracle,  and  to  the  amazement  of  the 
spectators,  the  supposed  cripple  picked  up  his  hat  and 
walked  off  the  scene. 

This  illusion  was  obtained  by  using  alternately  a 
cripple,  a  straw-filled  dummy,  and  a  player  with  the  usual 
number  of  legs.  The  dummy  was  placed  on  the  track 
and  a  few  feet  of  film  were  run  off.  A  signal  was  then 
given  to  the  street  car  and  more  pictures  were  taken  while 
it  passed  over  the  dummy,  the  legs  being  jerked  into  the 
gutter  by  means  of  cords  at  the  time  that  the  car  was  in 
the  picture.  As  soon  as  the  car  passed  out  of  the  picture 
the  camera  was  stopped,  the  cripple  was  laid  in  the  posi- 
tion formerly  occupied  by  his  straw  counterpart,  and  the 
camera  was  restarted.  By  means  of  strings  that  extended 
to  the  opposite  side  of  the  street,  one  of  the  party  pulled 
the  legs  up  to  the  cripple.  The  camera  was  again  stopped, 
the  cripple  was  removed  from  the  scene,  and  his  able- 
bodied  companion  was  put  in  his  place.  After  a  few  feet 
of  film  had  been  run,  the  player  rose  and  walked  out  of 
the  picture. 

Many  of  the  train  and  automobile  wrecks  are  not 
faked  but  are  actual  collisions  between  real  machines,  the 
occupants,  of  course,  being  removed  at  the  moment  of  the 
catastrophe.  Many  thousands  of  dollars  have  been  spent 
by  the  film  companies  in  wrecking  automobiles  in  front 
of  the  camera,  and  thrilling  pictures  have  been  obtained 
in  this  way.  In  one  picture  showing  the  results  of  a  joy 
ride,  a  perfectly  good  fifteen  hundred  dollar  car  was  run 
over  the  edge  of  a  cliff  and  smashed  on  the  rocks  below. 
In  this  film  a  dummy  was  placed  in  the  car  before  it  was 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 


75 


started  on  its  way  to  destruction.  In  another  film  a  loco- 
motive and  two  freight  cars  were  derailed  and  run  over 
an  embankment  at  a  cost  of  about  twenty-five  hundred 
dollars. 

Professional  acrobats,  high  divers  and  aviators  con- 
tribute their  mite  to  the  motion  picture  show  in  pursuit 
pictures,  and  in  thrilling  escapes  and  rescues.  A  recent 
film  in  which  the  hero  escaped  from  his  enemies  by  jump- 
ing off  a  ninety-foot  embankment  and  into  the  river  was 
a  record  of  an  actual  leap  by  a  well  known  high  diver. 


Fig.  37.  A  terrible  automobile  tragedy  performed  on  a  three  foot  stage 
with  a  toy  automobile.  Not  all  of  the  automobile  accident  films  are 
taken  in  this  way,  however,  for  in  a  recent  release  a  full  sized  ma- 
chine was  run  over  an  embankment. 

The  tumbling  and  grotesque  feats  of  the  "chase"  pictures 
are  always  performed  by  professional  acrobats,  for  no 
human  being,  without  experience  in  this  line,  could  sur- 
vive the.  banging  and  whacking  strenuosities  of  this  class 
of  film.  The  collisions  are  real  collisions  and  the  falls 
are  real  falls. 

As  the  operation  of  an  aeroplane  requires  consid- 
erable skill  and  practice,  the  real  aviator  is  always  substi- 
tuted for  the  character  in  the  play  before  the  machine 
leaves  the  ground,  although  the  passenger  is  usually  one 
of  the  players.  In  some  cases  the  aviator  has  been  coached 
so  that  he  carries  the  part  through  alone,  from  start  to 


76 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 


finish,  without  the  aid  of  the  players,  and  without  sub- 
stitution. When  the  pictures  are  to  be  obtained  from 
above,  the  camera  man  accompanies  the  aviator. 


Fig.  38.  Taking  a  trick  aviation  picture.  The  two  toy  aeroplanes  sus- 
pended by  cords  are  "crossing  the  channel"  in  which  two  miniature 
ships  are  floating.  A  rotating  fan  at  the  rear  of  the  scene  produces 
ripples  on  the  water.  At  the  present  time  the  full  sized_  aeroplanes 
are_  so  common  as  to  make  this  procedure  unnecessary,  it  being  an 
easier  matter  to  take  the  real  machine  in  flight. 

TRICK  PICTURES. 

Motion  pictures  are  particularly  well  adapted  for 
creating  illusions.     Fairv  stories  in  which  the  characters 


MOTION   PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 


77 


appear  and  disappear  as  by  magic,  lend  themselves  par- 
ticularly well  to  the  photographic  process,  and  almost  any 
nightmare,  no  matter  how  grotesque  or  weird,  can  be  re- 
produced by  a  clever  manipulation  of  the  camera.  The 
French  producer,  Melies,  who  was  at  one  time  a  prestidi- 
gitateur,  was  among  the  first  to  take  advantage  of  this 
property  of  the  camera  and  to  make  trick  pictures,  his 
first  productions  being  repetitions  of  the  tricks  performed 
by  him  on  the  stage. 


Cut  A   shows  a  strip  of  wood  being  crushed  by  a   bullet   issuing  from  the 
revolver  at  the  right  of  the  picture. 


ll  I 


if  II 


Cut  B  shows  a  bullet  entering  the  end  of  a  lead  tube  filled  with  water,  the 
top  of  the  tube  being  perforated  with  small  holes  from  which  the  water 
may  be  seen  to  rise. 

Fig.  39 — Photographs  of  projectiles  moving  at  high  velocities  are  taken 
at  the  rate  of  6,500  per  second  by  means  of  an  electric  spark.  When 
run  through  the  projector  at  the  ordinary  rate  the  bullets  pass  very 
slowly  across  the  screen  so  that  every  movement  can  be  clearly  seen. 
(To  see  the  pictures  in  their  proper  position,  turn  the  book  so  that 
the  outside  edge  of  the  page  is  at  the  top.) 

After  extensive  experiments  with  the  simpler  sub- 
jects, he  gradually  evolved  the  well  known  type  of  pic- 
ture in  which  tools  and  toy  animals  move  about  on  the 
screen,  as  if  endowed  with  life.  These  were  followed  by 
the  vision  scenes  and  spectral  subjects  that  were  produced 
by  means  of  double  exposures  and  double  printing.  As 
the  art  of  motography  developed  the  trick  pictures  be- 
came harder  and  harder  to  produce,  for  the  stock  of  sub- 
jects was  becoming  scarce,  and  the  audiences  more  sophis- 
ticated and  critical.  This,  of  course,  resulted  in  a  greatly 
increased  cost  of  production,  so  that  trick  pictures  arc 


78  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

now  seldom  made  unless  some  entirely  and  radically 
new  idea  has  been  received  by  the  producer. 

In  a  general  way,  there  are  three  methods  of  obtain- 
ing illusion  by  means  of  the  camera.  First,  by  periodi- 
cally starting  and  stopping  the  camera  in  such  a  way  that 
certain  acts  are  performed  by  the  subject  during  the  time 
that  the  camera  is  stopped.  Second,  by  reversing  the  rou- 
tine on  certain  portions  of  the  film  in  regard  to  the  re- 
maining parts,  and  third,  by  making  two  superimposed 
impressions  on  a  single  film.  While  there  are  many  varia- 
tions in  taking  the  pictures,  nearly  all  of  them  depend  pri- 
marily upon  one  or  the  other  of  the  three  principals,  or 
upon  the  use  of  faked  scenery  or  dummy  figures. 

"A  stop"  picture,  in  which  dummy  figures  are  sub- 
stituted for  the  real  actors  while  the  camera  is  stopped,  or 
in  which  inanimate  objects  are  moved  alternately  with  the 
exposures,  are  among  the  most  commonly  used  of  the 
effects.  By  this  means  it  is  possible  to  make  toy  animals 
perform  circus  feats  without  apparent  aid,  tools  can  be 
made  to  work  without  human  supervision,  or  the  actors 
can  be  made  to  go  through  the  most  impossible  or  dan- 
gerous feats  without  the  least  exertion  or  risk  to  them- 
selves. An  example  of  this  class  of  picture  is  shown  in 
Fig.  36,  entitled  "The  Magic  Coffee  Pot,"  in  which  the 
man  in  the  foreground  moves  the  bottom  of  the  coffee  pot 
upwardly  by  a  series  of  jerks,  a  picture  being  taken  di- 
rectly after  each  movement  of  the  cords.  If  he  raises  the 
pot  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  for  each  picture  there  will  be 
sixteen  pictures  taken  for  every  inch  of  movement,  which, 
at  the  ordinary  rate  of  projection,  will  take  one  second  to 
reproduce  on  the  screen.  Decreasing  the  movement  per 
picture  naturally  increases  the  time  of  projection. 

Practically  the  same  method  is  used  in  pictures  where 
a  character  in  the  picture  is  to  go  through  some  experi- 
ence that  would  be  impossible  in  real  life.  In  this  case, 
the  action  is  carried  along  in  the  usual  manner  until  the 
point  is  reached  at  which  the  accident  is  to  occur,  or  the 
point  where  a  dummy  must  be  substituted  for  the  real 
actor.  The  producer  now  shouts  to  the  actors  to  "Hold 
it,"  whereupon  all  of  the  actors  instantly  stop  their  action 
and  remain  motionless,  in  the  position  in  which  they  were 
caught,  and  the  camera  is  stopped.  The  hero  of  the  story 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 


79 


is  now  removed  from  the  scene  and  the  dummy  is  sub- 
stituted, arranged  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  original 
position  of  the  player.  Everyone  now  receives  the  signal 
to  go  ahead  as  usual  with  the  play  until  the  point  is 
reached  where  the  player  is  to  reappear  as  in  life,  when 
the  same  plan  of  stopping  the  action  is  repeated. 


Fig.    40 — Taking  a   scenic   from    the   pilot   of   a   locomotive,    a   rather   dis- 
agreeable and  dangerous  task   for   the  operator. 

Nearly  everyone  has  seen  the  "reversal"  pictures,  in 
which  objects  in  the  picture  suddenly  reverse  their  usual 
direction  of  progress,  or  in  which  the  characters  in  the 
scene  perform  such  feats  as  jumping  over  high  walls  or 


80  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

leaping  from  the  water  to  a  dock.  In  the  former  case, 
the  motion  is  carried  out  in  the  usual  way,  but  the  rela- 
tion between  the  motion  and  the  order  in  which  the  pic- 
tures are  taken  is  reversed  by  means  of  either  a  "revers- 
ing crank"  on  the  camera,  which  changes  the  direction  of 
the  film,  or  by  turning  the  camera  upside  down.  In  some 
cases  a  special  printing  machine  feeds  the  negative  film  in 
a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  positive  during  the 
process  of  printing,  so  that  the  relation  of  one  portion  of 
the  film  is  reversed  in  regard  to  that  portion  that  imme- 
diately precedes  it. 

Another  interesting  film  of  this  class  is  that  showing 
the  complete  erection  of  an  office  building  during  a  few 
moments  run  of  the  film.  The  pictures  in  this  case  were 
actually  taken  of  the  building  while  it  was  being  torn 
down,  a  few  pictures  being  taken  at  short  intervals  from 
the  time  that  the  wreckers  started  until  they  completed  the 
job.  When  this  film  is  run  through  the  projector  in  a  re- 
verse direction  it  gives  one  the  impression  that  he  is  wit- 
nessing a  record  breaking  building  job,  for,  due  to  the 
reversal,  the  building  line  raises  instead  of  falls. 

Ghost  pictures,  or  pictures  in  which  a  vision  or 
dream  is  shown,  are  obtained  either  by  exposing  the  neg- 
ative twice  before  the  development  or  by  double-printing 
with  two  negatives  on  a  single  positive  film.  In  either 
case  two  separate  stage  settings  are  used,  one  containing 
the  scenery  and  the  principal  characters,  and  the  other 
showing  the  ghost  or  vision.  When  the  latter  scene  is 
superimposed  on  the  other  it  appears  as  a  thin,  vaporous 
impression  that  strongly  suggests  the  ordinary  idea  of  a 
ghost  or  the  intangibility  of  a  dream.  The  fact  that  the 
furniture  or  furnishings  of  the  room  show  through  the 
outlines  of  the  ghost,  as  if  it  were  transparent,  greatly 
heightens  the  illusion.  Only  light  colored  or  white  figures 
can  be  used  with  good  results,  since  dark  figures  would 
obscure  the  surfaces  that  lay  immediately  behind  them. 

In  taking  the  picture  the  first  exposure  is  made  of 
the  scene  and  the  "material"  characters  in  the  ordinary 
way,  with  practically  the  same  exposure  in  order  to  bring 
out  the  details.  When  this  is  completed  the  ghost  is 
placed  on  a  stage  that  is  set  in  dead  black,  so  that  there 
will  be  no  record  of  anything  but  the  ghost.  The  film  is 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 


81 


82  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

now  rewound  and  is  again  passed  through  the  camera 
until  the  point  is  reached  where  the  ghost  is  to  appear. 
The  diaphragm  is  now  slowly  opened,  with  the  camera 
running,  so  that  the  image  of  the  ghost  gradually  gains 
in  strength  until  the  full  illumination  is  gained,  which  of 
course,  gives  the  audience  the  impression  that  the  ghost 
has  developed  out  of  the  empty  air.  After  the  ghost  has 
gone  through  with  its  "business"  the  diaphragm  is  slowly 
closed,  causing  the  ghost  to  gradually  fade  away. 

Vision  pictures  are  more  complicated  than  the  ghost 
pictures,  the  majority  of  this  type  including  scenery  or 
interior  acts  as  well  as  the  players.  This  necessarily  re- 
quires a  blank  surface  for  its  projection,  such  as  a  wall  or 
a  panel,  as  the  outlines  of  any  part  of  the  first  scene 
would  detract  from  the  clearness  of  the  vision.  Scenes 
in  which  a  number  of  men  are  tossed  about  in  an  explo- 
sion are  usually  obtained  by  a  double  exposure  of  the 
negative,  the  first  exposure  being  taken  of  the  men  in  the 
desired  attitudes,  and  the  second  of  a  puff  of  white  smoke 
that  is  backed  by  a  black  background.  Superimposing 
the  two  pictures  gives  a  print  that  shows  the  players  en- 
veloped in  the  smoke  clouds. 

Substituting  small  scale  models  for  the  actual  sub- 
ject has  been  followed  in  still  photography  for  so  long 
that  its  application  to  the  moving  pictures  will  be  dis- 
missed, the  figures  that  accompany  this  chapter  giving  a 
clear  idea  of  the  general  methods  employed.  While  this 
system  has  been  used  extensively  in  showing  accidents 
that  would  ordinarily  be  impossible  with  full  size  appar- 
atus, it  does  not  follow  that  all  sensational  films  are  pro- 
duced in  this  way.  In  many  cases  locomotive  collisions, 
automobile  accidents  and  aeroplane  "stunts"  have  been 
carried  out  with  full  scale  machines,  productions  that 
have  cost  many  thousands  of  dollars. 

By  employing  black  backgrounds  that  destroy  all 
sense  of  perspective,  and  by  putting  the  different  parts  of 
the  scene  at  different  distances  from  the  camera  it  is  pos- 
sible to  produce  the  midget  fairy  pictures  that  have  been 
so  popular.  The  small  figures  that  perform  on  a  table  top 
in  the  presence  of  a  "full  sized"  audience  are  produced 
by  putting  the  audience  in  the  immediate  foreground 
while  the  players  are  thrown  back  of  the  stage  far  enough 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING  83 

to  reduce  their  height  to  a  few  inches,  the  level  of  the 
stage  being  arranged  so  that  the  feet  of  the  players  coin- 
cide with  the  top  surface.  Since  there  are  no  connecting 
lines  between  the  players  and  the  figures  in  the  fore- 
ground, due  to  the  black  drop,  there  is  no  apparent  per- 
spective, and,  as  a  result,  the  players  appear  to  be  in  a 
direct  line  with  the  figures  in  the  foreground. 

The  same  result  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  mir- 
rors instead  of  a  black  drop,  the  players  in  this  case  be- 
ing placed  in  front  of  the  stage  and  beside  the  camera. 
The  mirror  is  placed  in  a  suitable  frame  or  panel  in  line 
with  the  audience.  When  light  is  thrown  on  the  players 
the  image  is  reflected  back  into  the  camera,  by  the  mirror, 
much  reduced  in  size,  since  the  effective  distance  of  the 
player  is  increased  by  the  length  of  the  light  beam  from 
the  stage  to  the  mirror  and  thence  to  the  camera.  When 
the  lights  are  extinguished  on  the  stage,  the  players  dis- 
appear from  the  scene,  leaving  the  figures  in  the  fore- 
ground at  the  same  intensity.  They  may  be  made  to  fade 
away  by  gradually  dimming  the  light,  instead  of  cutting 
it  off  suddenlv. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  SCENARIO. 

• 

In  order  to  proceed  intelligently  with  the  making  of 
a  photoplay,  the  actors  and  director  are  provided  with  a 
synopsis  or  outline  of  the  action  which  is  known  as  a 
scenario.  The  scenario  not  only  contains  a  condensed 
outline  of  the  plot  but  also  gives  the  list  of  characters,  a 
description  of  the  various  scenes,  and  a  list  of  the  "prop- 
erties" used.  Provided  with  this  manuscript,  the  director 
selects  the  actors  that  he  thinks  would  be  suitable  for 
the  characters,  and  in  the  case  of  out  door  plays,  deter- 
mines on  a  desirable  locality  for  the  action.  From  the 
same  source,  the  costumer  and  property  men  receive  the 
information  for  the  making  of  the  costumes  and  various 
"props"  entering  into  the  picture. 

During  this  period  of  preparation,  the  actors  are 
studying  the  parts  assigned  to  them  so  that  they  will  not 
only  become  acquainted  with  their  own  work,  but  with 
the  spirit  of  the  play  as  well,  so  that  the  individual  parts 
will  be  in  harmony  with  one  another.  When  these  pre- 
liminaries are  completed,  the  director  calls  for  a  re- 
hearsal, at  which  the  players  are  put  through  their  parts 
until  they  are  able  to  successfully  express  themselves  in 
pantomime.  In  plays  having  complicated  situations,  es- 
pecially in  historical  plays,  or  pageants,  the  rehearsal  may 
extend  over  several  weeks  before  everything  is  ready  for 
the  camera. 

As  a  one  reel  play  is  generally  limited  to  1,000  feet, 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  director  to  regulate  the  speed  of 
the  acting  and  the  length  of  the  scenes  so  that  the  action 
will  be  accomplished  within  the  length  of  the  film,  a 
period  of  about  twenty  minutes.  If  the  play  has  many 
scenes,  some  must  be  shortened  or  others  lengthened  so 
that  the  total  time  amounts  to  twenty  minutes  or  less. 
In  arranging  the  "schedule"  of  the  scenes,  the  director 
is  guided  both  by  his  watch  and  by  the  register  on  the 
camera  that  records  the  number  of  feet  exposed. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING  85 

During  the  rehearsal,  the  players  are  either  assigned, 
or  assume  a  dialogue  that  corresponds  in  a  rough  way  to 
the  pantomime.  While  the  speech  is  not  reproduced  by 
the  projector,  it  is  a  great  aid  in  attaining  the  correct 
facial  expression,  and  makes  the  picture  much  more 
natural. 

WRITING  THE  SCENARIO. 

To  write  successful  scenarios,  the  writer  should  be 
a  regular  attendant  of  the  motion  picture  theater,  and  a 
subscriber  to  the  better  class  of  the  motion  picture  trade 
journals,  for  through  these  mediums  the  prospective 
scenario  author  can  study  the  possibilities  of  scenic  con- 
struction, and  the  attitude  of  the  public  in  regard  to  the 
different  classes  of  pictures.  By  consulting  the  trade 
journals  in  regard  to  past  and  current  releases  he  may 
be  saved  the  humiliation  of  duplicating  some  play  that 
has  already  been  produced.  In  addition  to  this  the  pa- 
pers publish  comments  on  the  strength  and  weakness  of 
the  various  films  that  should  be  of  great  advantage  to  the 
beginner. 

The  daily  press  abounds  in  suggestions  for  unusual 
or  comic  scenarios,  for  there  are  no  more  interesting  or 
ridiculous  situations  than  those  that  occur  in  our  every 
day  life.  At  the  very  start,  the  beginner  should  train 
himself  to  see  the  possibilities  of  a  story  among  the 
newspaper  items,  and  when  one  is  discovered,  it  should 
be  clipped  and  filed  away  for  future  reference,  in  a  suita- 
ble scrap  book.  Never  trust  any  little  idea  that  may  occur 
to  you  to  memory,  but  jot  it  down  in  a  note  book  that 
is  devoted  to  your  scenario  "dope."  If  such  an  item  is 
not  sufficient  in  itself  for  a  complete  story,  it  may  be 
found  useful  in  connection  with  some  other  work. 

Manuscript  titles  are  of  the  greatest  importance,  for 
an  attractive  or  unusual  title  has  the  same  commercial 
value  as  a  catchy  advertising  phrase,  and  often  will  as- 
sist in  the  marketing  of  an  indifferent  scenario.  Com- 
monplace titles,  such  as  "Loved  and  Lost,"  or  "Asleep 
at  the  Switch,"  so  popular  with  the  cheap  melodramas, 
are  not  popular  with  scenario  editors  who  are  becoming 
more  and  more  particular  in  this  respect.  A  short  title 
is  the  best,  and  should  not  in  any  case  exceed  five  words 
in  length. 


86  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

Photoplays  should  contain  no  murder  scenes,  nor 
should  they  touch  upon  subjects  that  suggest  crime,  for 
films  that  are  of  a  morbid  nature  are  not  wanted,  either 
by  the  manufacturers  or  by  the  board  of  censorship. 
Films  that  have  suicides  or  robberies  for  their  motive  will 
not  be  permitted  by  the  censors.  If  a  man  is  to  be  killed 
in  your  play,  it  should  be  explained  in  the  subtitle  and 
not  shown  to  the  audience.  Any  wrong  that  is  committed 
in  the  play  should  be  accompanied  by  prompt  and  ade- 
quate punishment,  so  that  it  will  be  a  warning  against 
any  similar  attempt  at  such  an  act.  The  tendency  to- 
wards cleaner  plays  is  the  direct  result  of  the  constantly 
increasing  attendance  of  women  and  children  at  the 
moving  picture  shows,  which  of  course  makes  it  inad- 
visable to  run  the  old  form  of  blood  and  thunder  melo- 
dramas. 

Pictures  showing  animals  are  always  of  interest,  es- 
pecially to  children,  but  as  there  are  but  few  manufac- 
turers that  are  capable  of  producing  such  subjects,  the 
amateur  playwright  should  avoid  introducing  animals 
other  than  the  dog,  horse  or  cow.  Wild  animal  stories 
are  generally  written  at  the  studio  of  the  producing  com- 
pany so  that  they  will  fit  the  resources  of  their  menagerie. 
Stories  that  require  the  special  training  of  an  animal  to 
perform  some  particular  "stunt"  are  especially  to  be 
avoided.  Semi-industrials,  or  pictures  in  which  the  plot 
is  involved  with  a  mill  or  factory  are  interesting  but  are 
often  difficult  to  take  and  expensive  to  produce,  for  the 
owners  of  the  mills  are  seldom  enthusiastic  about  turn- 
ing their  plants  into  studios. 

It  is  best  to  concentrate  upon  the  affairs  of  every  day 
life,  rather  than  to  soar  in  the  clouds  with  complicated 
and  difficult  subjects.  A  story  with  the  scenes  set  in  a 
city  or  an  every  day  home  is  of  more  interest  to  the 
average  audience  than  one  set  in  a  foreign  country  that 
is  unfamiliar  to  the  average  man.  The  picture  theater 
patron  is  seeking  instruction  as  well  as  amusement  as  a 
rule,  and  to  keep  his  patronage  he  must  be  shown  pictures 
that  he  can  understand. 

It  is  due  to  this  fact,  principally,  that  "Westerns" 
are  so  popular,  for  the  characters  portrayed  by  this  class 
of  firm  belong  to  a  class  that  is  familiar  to  every  working 
man  patron  of  the  show.  The  scenes  are  homely  and  are 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING  8? 

equivalent  to  the  ordinary  farm  surroundings  in  more 
familiar  sections  of  the  country.  Don't  attempt  compli- 
cated plots,  nor  introduce  an  unnecessary  number  of  char- 
acters or  scenes. 

Historical  pageants  and  plays  requiring  a  great  num- 
ber of  people  are  generally  prepared  by  the  scenario  de- 
partment of  the  producing  company,  as  are  dramatiza- 
tions of  well  known  books.  Don't  try  to  rehash  the  plots 
contained  in  standard  works,  such  as  Vanity  Fair,  Treas- 
ure Island,  or  Oliver  Twist.  Make  your  story  original. 
The  fewer  the  scenes,  the  better,  for  a  play  having  twenty 
scenes  or  more  is  not  only  expensive  to  produce,  but  is 
confusing  to  the  audience  as  well.  Ten  scenes  are  more 
than  enough  for  any  photoplay,  and  five  are  still  better. 
Write  your  story  in  the  present  tense,  and  avoid  the  play 
of  the  "twenty  year  afterwards"  type. 

Comedies  are  the  most  popular  type  of  film,  for 
the  average  person  attends  the  theater  for  the  purpose  of 
being  amused,  and  the  more  laughs  that  he  obtains  for 
his  money,  the  better  he  likes  it.  If  the  writer  has  a 
sense  of  humor  and  has  the  ability  to  place  his  concep- 
tions in  concrete  form  he  is  more  certain  of  success  than 
a  dramatic  writer  of  great  ability.  One  laugh  is  worth 
fifty  sobs  in  a  film. 

Real  comedies  are  hard  to  find,  and  are  correspond- 
ingly valuable  to  the  manufacturer.  The  "chase  around 
the  block"  pictures,  and  the  films  exploiting  slap  stick 
humor  are  rapidly  becoming  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  the 
so-called  comics  in  which  an  actor  in  an  outlandish  cos- 
tume knocks  down  everything  in  his  path  receives  but 
scant  attention  from  an  audience  that  has  had  the  oppor- 
tunity of  witnessing  a  modern  type  of  picture. 

A  true  comedy  differs  from  a  merely  comic  picture 
in  having  a  series  of  incidents  that  build  up  to  a  climax, 
or  in  other  words  the  comedy  possesses  a  plot  similar  to 
that  of  a  story.  A  comic  picture,  on  the  other  hand,  has 
a  principal  comic  incident  around  which  a  series  of  events 
of  a  more  or  less  disconnected  type  is  woven. 

The  drama  is  second  in  importance  to  the  comedy  in 
photoplays,  both  in  respect  to  its  popularity  and  its  mon- 
etary value  to  the  scenario  writer.  It  is  in  this  class 
of  scenario  that  the  playwright  must  be  particularly  care- 
ful to  avoid  the  restrictions  placed  on  the  several  sub- 


88  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

jects  tabooed  by  the  censors.  This  form  of  play  has 
been  so  thoroughly  worked  over  and  exploited  by  the 
"legitimate"  theater  that  the  scenario  writer  will  experi- 
ence great  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  thoroughly  original 
theme  for  his  story. 

In  the  tragedy  form  of  the  drama  there  is  always  a 
cause,  a  deed,  and  an  effect.  In  a  photo-drama,  the  film 
must  create  the  impression  among  the  audience  that  they 
are  witnessing  the  three  elements  of  the  action,  unknown 
to  the  characters  of  the  play.  They  should  be  put  in  the 
position  of  being  at  the  "knot  hole  in  the  fence"  at  every 
stage  in  the  play. 

The  application  of  the  three  stepping  stones  of  the 
tragedy  form  may  be  had  from  the  following  conversa- 
tion in  which  a  man  has  a  friend  and  informs  him  of  a 
disturbance  that  is  taking  place  around  the  corner.  As 
they  run  to  the  scene,  the  friend  asks,  as  indicated  by  a 
subtitle : 

"Why  are  they  fighting?" 

"Because  one  of  them  was  abusing  his  horse." 
(Cause.) 

After  reaching  the  scene,  one  of  the  men  strikes  his 
opponent  a  terrific  blow  that  sends  him  to  the  sidewalk. 
(The  deed.)  During  the  uproar  caused  by  this  act,  a 
policeman  appears  upon  the  scene,  and  places  the  men 
under  arrest.  The  horse  which  has  been  standing  unat- 
tended up  to  this  time,  now  runs  down  the  street  caus- 
ing further  confusion.  (The  effect.) 

In  this  homely  illustration,  which  one  would  hardly 
call  a  tragedy  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  we  have 
not  only  the  cause,  deed,  and  effect,  but  the  foundation, 
(introduction),  the  climax  and  the  catastrophe  as  well. 
As  a  check  to  the  factors  just  named,  the  story  will  be 
complete  when  it  answers  the  questions,  when,  who, 
where,  what,  how  and  why.  If,  when  going  over  your 
work,  you  find  that  these  six  questions  are  answered,  you 
may  be  sure  that  you  have  at  least  completed  the  formal 
outline.  After  this  the  work  consists  of  filling  out  or 
ornamenting  the  outline,  the  extent  of  the  latter  being 
limited  only  by  your  ingenuity. 

In  writing  a  scenario,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
action  is  the  life  of  the  film  story,  and  that  the  characters 
should  be  kept  moving  continuously,  or  the  thread  of  the 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING  89 

story  will  be  lost.  Let  every  movement  be  logical,  that 
is,  keep  the  action  close  to  nature.  Make  each  character 
do  the  things  that  you  would  do  under  similar  circum- 
stances, and  not  what  you  think  would  produce  a  the- 
atrical or  sensational  effect,  that  would  be  at  variance 
with  the  natural  inclinations  of  the  character.  To  avoid 
impossible  or  ridiculous  situations,  write  about  that  class 
of  people  that  you  meet  in  your  every  day  life,  and  not 
those  of  whom  you  have  only  a  reading  knowledge. 

Be  true  to  your  details,  for  a  critical  audience,  and 
there  are  many  of  them  now,  will  hold  the  story  in  con- 
tempt unless  the  minutest  details  in  regard  to  characteri- 
zation and  properties  are  correct.  In  dramas  of  a  par- 
ticularly somber  hue,  strength  is  added  to  the  play  by 
introducing  a  few  bright  comedy  touches  at  intervals. 
This  contrast  not  only  enlivens  the  play,  but  accentuates 
the  effect  of  the  theme.  In  introducing  the  comedy  fea- 
tures care  should  be  taken  that  no  characters  are  used 
that  are  "lugged  into  the  play"  simply  for  this  reason. 
Such  characters  instantly  destroy  the  illusion  that  the 
playwright  seeks  to  attain. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  an  idea  of  the  scenes 
be  given  to  the  producing  company  in  the  scenario  manu- 
script, for  it  is  usually  impossible  to  expect  that  the  di- 
rector will  be  as  well  informed  in  regard  to  the  character 
of  the  surroundings  as  yourself.  Describe  the  period  of 
the  play,  whether  modern  or  ancient,  and  give  the  local- 
ity in  which  your  characters  live.  In  indoor  scenes,  give 
an  idea  as  to  the  nature  of  the  building,  the  location  of 
the  doors  and  windows.  Tell  in  a  few  words,  the  cos- 
tumes used,  both  in  regard  to  the  period  and  their  con- 
dition. 

Describe  when  and  where  the  characters  are  to  en- 
ter the  scene,  giving  the  entrance,  or  the  direction.  If 
they  are  to  be  in  the  scene  at  the  beginning  of  the  film, 
state  that  they  are  "discovered,"  and  give  their  position. 
Avoid  the  use  of  unusual  furnishings  if  possible,  for 
this  means  additional  expense  to  the  producing  company, 
which  will  of  course  reduce  the  chances  of  having  the 
manuscript  accepted.  Remember  that  the  camera  has  a 
very  limited  field  of  view,  about  ten  feet  in  the  fore- 
ground. If  a  very  great  number  of  people  are  in  'the 
scene  the  camera  must  be  moved  back  in  order  to  cover 


90  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

the  scene,  with  the  result  that  the  figures  will  appear  very 
small  on  the  screen.  Try  to  condense  the  scenes  so  that 
the  characters  will  appear  full  size  in  the  projection. 

A  thousand  foot  film  runs  only  twenty  minutes,  and 
the  play  must  be  arranged  so  that  it  will  be  completed 
within  this  time.  To  approximate  the  time  required  to 
go  through  the  various  scenes,  go  through  the  play  by 
yourself,  scene  by  scene,  timing  each  act  by  your  watch. 
With  the  information  gained  by  this  method  you  will  be 
enabled  to  make  an  estimate  as  to  which  scene  must  be 
"trimmed"  or  lengthened.  The  results  will  probably  sur- 
prise you,  for  nearly  every  writer  underestimates  the 
length  of  his  production.  If  you  don't  clip  it,  some  one 
else  will. 

Should  the  action  be  very  unusual,  or  the  story  al- 
together out  of  the  ordinary,  it  would  be  well  to  briefly 
describe  some  of  the  "business"  or  movements  of  the 
players.  With  stories  of  ordinary  life  the  players  are  in 
a  better  position  to  do  this  than  yourself.  Don't  allow 
some  little  detail  or  incident  to  lead  you  astray  from  the 
main  theme  of  your  story.  Stick  to  your  story  and  don't 
ramble. 

Be  consistent  in  both  your  scenes  and  action,  don't 
introduce  wireless  telegraphy  in  a  story  of  Christopher 
Columbus,  nor  have  a  biblical  character  take  snap  shots 
of  an  aeroplane.  While  these  illustrations  may  sound 
greatly  exaggerated  the  writer  has  seen  films  that  were 
fully  as  bad  in  regard  to  the  relation  between  the  period 
and  action.  Even  the  customary  watchfulness  of  a  cer- 
tain director  failed  to  stop  a  scene  that  connected  George 
Washington  and  a  pair  of  rubber  boots. 

Write  your  plays  so  that  the  pictures  will  explain 
themselves  without  the  use  of  a  great  number  of  sub- 
titles. The  audience  came  to  see  pictures,  not  to  read 
about  them.  In  the  few  subtitles  that  are  used,  make  the 
reading  matter  short,  don't  use  a  superfluous  word.  Avoid 
in  particular  the  use  of  a  long  "leader"  that  gives  a  synop- 
sis of  the  play;  if  your  play  is  good  it  is  not  necessary 
to  warn  the  spectators. 

Subtitles  must  be  used  to  show  messages,  and  must 
also  be  used  to  tell  the  time  elapsed  between  one  scene 
and  the  next.  Outside  of  the  subtitles  used  for  this  pur- 
pose do  away  with  as  many  as  possible. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING  91 

Do  not  write  out  of  door  plays  in  the  wrong  season 
if  you  wish  to  realize  on  your  manuscript  immediately, 
for  it  is  impossible  for  the  producing  company  to  take 
toboggan  pictures  in  June,  or  harvest  fields  in  February. 
Interior  pictures  are  always  seasonable,  for  they  can  be 
taken  in  the  studios  regardless  of  the  weather  conditions. 
If  you  have  an  idea  for  an  outdoor  play  that  is  out  of 
season,  write  it,  and  file  it  away  for  use  at  the  proper 
time. 

Many  of  the  larger  companies  have  players  and  stu- 
dios both  in  the  east  and  in  the  west  (the  western  studios 
are  nearly  always  located  in  California).  If  your  sce- 
nario treats  of  the  Atlantic  Coast,  the  Middle  West,  or 
the  Pacific  States,  the  producing  company  can  stage  it 
in  that  particular  locality.  As  a  rule  do  not  show  your 
characters  in  widely  separated  localities.  If  it  is  neces- 
sary to  indicate  that  a  man  is  in  a  foreign  country,  and 
at  home  in  the  same  film,  arrange  the  foreign  scene  so 
that  it  can  be  produced  in  the  studio  with  artificial  set- 
tings. This  is  possible  when  interiors  are  indicated,  such 
as  the  interior  of  a  hotel  or  office.  Exterior  foreign 
views  should  be  avoided. 

.     CORRECT    SCENARIO    FORM. 

Many  scenarios  that  would  otherwise  have  been 
acceptable  have  been  rejected  because  of  the  con- 
fusing arrangement  of  the  manuscript,  and  in  the 
lack  of  system  on  the  part  of  the  writer  in  displaying  his 
wares.  The  film  companies  have  neither  the  time  nor 
the  inclination  to  rewrite  scenarios,  no  matter  how  good 
the  subject.  To  insure  the  attention  of  the  scenario 
editor,  the  following  rules  regarding  the  form  of  the 
manuscript  should  be  observed. 

(1)  Write  your  story  on  good  white  paper,  8^x11  inches. 
(Typewriter  second  sheets  will  do.) 

(2)  Write  only  on  one  side  of  the  paper. 

(3)  Use  a  typewriter  if  possible;  if  not,  always  write  in  ink. 

(4)  Write  your  name  and  address  at  the  top  of  the  first 
sheet. 

(5)  Write  the  price  of  your  play,  if  you  think  it  advisable. 
If  it  is  your  first  scenario,   we   would  advise  the  use  of  the 
sentence,  "Submitted  at  your  usual  rates." 

(6)  In  the  center  of  the  sheet  about  two  spaces  below  the 
address,  write  the  name  of  your  play,  capitalizing  the  principal 
words. 

(7)  Two  spaces  below  the  title  write  the  word  "synopsis" 
in  capitals. 


92  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 

(8)  On  the  next  line  begin  your  synopsis,  giving  a  com- 
plete  outline  of  your  play  in   as   brief   a  manner  as  possible. 
Never  exceed  200  words. 

(9)  Two  spaces  below  your  synopsis,  and  in  the  center  of 
the  sheet,  write  the  word  "Characters." 

(10)  Below  this  title  write  the  name,  and  a  very  short  de- 
scription of  the  characters.     Only  a   few  words  of  description 
is  necessary,  just  enough  to  explain  their  relation  to  the  play. 
Each  character  should  be  started  on  a  separate  line. 

(11)  Under  the  list  of  characters  give  the  number  of  scenes 
in    the   play,    the   location   of   each    scene    (the    "locale"),   and 
whether  they  are  to  be  interiors  or  exteriors. 

(12)  Begin  the  scenario  proper  on  a  new  sheet,  leaving  a 
space  of  about  one  inch  and  a  half  at  the  top  and  a  left  hand 
margin  of  the  same  width.     The  margin  should  be  left  clear  for 
the  scene  numbers,  such  as  "Scene  I,"  "Scene  II,"  etc. 

(13)  Always  use  Roman  numerals  for  the  scenes. 

(14)  Subtitles  should  either  be  written  even  with  the  left 
hand  edge  of  the  text,  or  in  the  center  of  the  sheet.    The  sub- 
titles should  always  be  capitalized  so  that  they  may  readily  be 
distinguished  from  the  text. 

(15)  Number  all  of  your  pages. 

(16)  Pin  the  pages  securely  together. 

(17)  Never   roll   your   manuscript,    for   this   makes   it  in- 
convenient to  handle. 

(18)  When  submitting  a  manuscript  always  enclose  suffi- 
cient postage  for  its  return. 

(19)  If  you  have  any  comments  to  make,  write  them  on  a 
separate  sheet  of  paper.     Make  them  brief. 

(20)  If  a  scenario  has  been  returned  by  one  maker,  re- 
write it  before  sending  it  out  again.     Soiled  copy  stands  a  poor 
chance  with  the  next  producer,  for  it  is  self-evident  that  it  has 
been  rejected  at  least  once  during  its  career. 

(21)  Don't  submit  short  stories,  or  matter  in  story  form. 
Analyze  the  action  and  motive  of  every  character. 

(22)  Don't  write  dialogues  for  the  characters. 

(23)  Keep  a  copy  of  every  scenario  that  you  write,  for  the 
original  manuscript  may  be  lost  in  its  wanderings. 

(24)  Don't  submit  the  same  scenario  to  two  manufacturers 
at  the  same  time. 

(25)  Number  your  scenes,  and  remember  that  every  time 
that  the  surroundings  or  "locales"  are  changed  you  must  have  a 
new  scene  and  a  new  subtitle.     In  moving  picture  plays  a  "scene" 
is  the  view  taken  at  a  single  setting  of  the  camera. 

(26)  Never  leave  your  characters  on  the  stage  at  the  close 
of  one  scene,  and  then  show  them  "discovered"  at  the  beginning 
of  the  next.     Have  them  leave  before  the  end  of  the  first  scene, 
and  then  enter  at  the  next. 

(27)  Don't  attempt  a  play  that  will  be  likely  to  prove  ^un- 
popular with  some  particular  class  of  people.    Avoid  religious 
controversies,   strikes,   political    feuds,   etc. 

The  following  scenario  will  give  an  idea  as  to  the 
form  of  manuscript  that  is  to  be  submitted  to  the  manu- 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBI1    NG  93 

facturer,  showing  the  characters,  locale,  arrangement  of 
subtitles,  etc.  Being  merely  a  form  of  procedure,  no 
attempt  has  been  made  to  have  it  of  any  particular  inter- 
est or  play  value. 

John  J.  Murphy,  1008  Leland  Avenue,  Chicago,  III. 
(Submitted  at  your  usual  rates.) 
"A  STORY  OF  THE  RAIL  MILLS." 
SYNOPSIS. 

A  mill  owner,  Alton  Thomas,  buys  out  one  of  his  smaller 
rivals  in  order  to  control  a  certain  class  of  steel.  After  the 
purchase  Thomas  discharges  all  of  the  former  employees  of  his 
rival  except  the  superintendent,  the  chemist,  and  the  melter,  who 
alone  possess  the  secret  of  the  steel.  All  of  the  old  hands  are 
replaced  by  men  from  the  Thomas  plant. 

Among  those  discharged  is  the  son  of  the  superintendent, 
who  unjustly  accuses  his  father  of  causing  his  dismissal  and  in 
revenge  threatens  to  sell  the  steel  formula  to  Thomas  unless  he 
is  reinstated.  Fortunately  for  the  father,  the  son  does  not  know 
that  the  process  of  melting,  which  he  does  not  understand  is 
of  as  much  importance  as  the  formulae,  etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

CHARACTERS. 

Alton  Thomas,  the  new  owner  of  the  mill. 
James   McDonald,   the  superintendent. 
Charles  McDonald,  son  of  the  superintendent. 
Bill  McPherson,  the  open  hearth  melter. 
Otto  Meyer,  a  typical  nervous  German  chemist   (comedy). 
Robert  Edsall,  former  owner  of  the  mill. 
Hearth  men,  charging  machine  and  crane  operators,  ingot 
strippers,  laborers,  etc. 

LOCALE. 

The  scenes  may  be  located  in  any  of  the  steel  mill  districts 
of  Pennsylvania,  Indiana  or  Illinois. 

Ten  scenes  are  required,  of  which  all  are  steel  mill  interiors, 
taken  preferably  on  the  charging  and  pouring  floors  and  in  the 
chemist's  "floor"  coop.  This  offers  an  opportunity  of  introducing 
an  interesting  semi-industrial  feature,  showing  one  stage  of  steel 
manufacture. 

With  the  exception  of  Edsall  and  Thomas,  who  wear  busi- 
ness suits  of  good  quality,  the  rest  of  the  characters  wear  old 
rough  clothes.  To  add  a  realistic  touch  to  the  scenes,  the  lower 
parts  of  the  laborers'  bodies  should  be  wrapped  with  burlap 
bandages,  commonly  used  as  a  protection  against  the  heat. 
SCENE  I.— Subtitle:  "McDonald  Warns  the  Melter." 

Charging  Floor.     McPherson  is  directing  a  furnace  charge. 
Charging  machine  in  the  foreground.     Superintendent  runs  up 
the  aisle,  taps  McPherson  on  the  shoulder  and  hands  him  a  letter. 
Mac  reads. 
Subtitle:    (Letter  Form). 

"Dear  Mac : — 

Negotiations  were  closed  today.  Thomas  will  assume  charge 
next  week.  McPherson  and  yourself  will  retain  your  old 
positions.  EDSALL." 


94  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

Both  men  appear  to  be  greatly  surprised  and  troubled. 
McDonald  indicates  that  great  secrecy  must  be  observed.  Orders 
several  sacks  of  material  to  be  placed  in  a  small  room  at  the 
side  of  furnace.  Locks  the  door  and  hands  keys  to  the  melter. 
Melter  resumes  the  charging  operation. 
SCENE  II. 

Chemist's  laboratory.  Meyer  is  engaged  in  making  an 
analysis  in  the  foreground.  McDonald  enters  at  right  so  hastily 
that  he  upsets  part  of  the  chemical  apparatus.  Meyer  protests 
wildly  with  many  uncouth  gestures.  Superintendent  laughs  and 
endeavors  to  calm  the  chemist,  then  becomes  serious  and  shows 
the  letter  to  Meyer.  The  chemist  immediately  locks  up  the 
apparatus  and  bolts  the  doors  (comedy  business),  etc.,  etc. 

This  form  while  incomplete  as  to  the  story  will 
show  the  method  of  arranging  the  manuscript.  Nothing 
is  left  to  the  imagination  of  the  producer  for  each  move- 
ment is  specified. 

SELLING  THE  SCENARIO. 

The  prices  paid  for  scenarios  vary  with  the  merit  of 
the  story,  or  the  demand  for  a  particular  class  of  play. 
In  the  majority  of  cases,  the  prices  range  from  five  to 
thirty  dollars,  but  in  the  case  of  exceptionally  good  ma- 
terial as  much  as  one  hundred  dollars  is  sometimes  paid. 
In  most  cases  no  credit  is  given  the  author,  either  on  the 
screen,  or  in  the  publicity  matter,  unless  he  happens  to 
be  a  well  known  writer  of  fiction. 

All  of  the  manuscript  received  by  the  producing  com- 
pany is  first  scanned  by  the  scenario  editor  or  his  staff 
of  readers.  The  duties  of  the  scenario  editor  are  sim- 
ilar of  those  of  an  editor  of  a  magazine.  When  he  be- 
lieves that  a  story  has  merit  he  submits  it  for  the  fur- 
ther criticism  of  the  directors  and  if  found  to  be  suita- 
ble, the  writer  will  receive  word  that  it  is  accepted. 

Should  the  scenario  treat  of  an  interesting  subject 
and  contain  really  new  ideas,  though  badly  written,  and 
in  poor  form,  it  may  be  rewritten  by  the  editorial  staff 
to  r..eet  the  needs  of  the  producer.  We  believe  however, 
that  these  cases  are  few  and  far  between,  and  do  not 
advise  that  half-cooked  scenarios  should  be  submitted 
with  the  hope  that  they  will  be  straightened  out  by  the 
manufacturer.  The  scenario  department  is  a  busy  one 
and  has  but  little  time  to  devote  to  the  rehashing  of 
amateur  efforts. 

When  submitting  a  scenario  fold  it  twice  across  the 
page  and  enclose  it  in  a  stout  legal  size  envelope.  Ad- 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING  95 

dress  it  to  the  producing  company,  and  in  the  lower  left 
hand  corner  write  the  sub-address  "Scenario  Depart- 
ment." Always  be  sure  that  enough  stamps  are  placed  on 
the  envelope,  for  manuscripts  that  arrive  at  the  studio 
with  postage  due  are  certainly  not  regarded  in  a  favora- 
ble light.  Enclose  a  fully  addressed  and  stamped  en- 
velope for  return,  which  should  be  small  enough  to  go 
into  the  first  envelope  without  folding. 

If  your  story  has  been  returned,  send  it  to  another 
firm  immediately,  and  keep  it  moving  until  it  has  either 
been  accepted  or  has  gone  the  rounds  of  all  the  manufac- 
turers. After  a  story  has  been  rejected  by  everyone,  look 
it  over  carefully  and  see  if  you  can  discover  where  it  is 
wrong.  If  you  think  that  you  have  located  the  trouble, 
rewrite  it,  give  it  another  title  and  start  it  on  the  rounds 
once  more.  Don't  be  discouraged  with  the  failure  of 
one  play,  keep  at  it  until  you  succeed  in  selling.  We 
learn  principally  through  our  failures.  It  is  impossible 
to  be  a  good  scenario  writer  without  a  very  considerable 
amount  of  practice. 

Lists  of  the  producing  companies  may  be  had  from 
the  advertising  pages  of  the  motion  picture  trade  jour- 
nals. Remember  that  really  good  comedies  are  the  rarest 
and  most  valuable  material  on  the  motion  picture  market. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE    THEATER. 

Unlike  the  "legitimate"  theater,  the  average  motion 
picture  theater  is  a  purely  local  affair,  drawing  the 
greater  part  of  its  patronage  from  the  residents,  business 
men,  or  transients  passing  through  its  immediate  vicinity. 
For  this  reason  the  prospective  owner  of  the  theater 
should  make  a  careful  study  of  the  character  of  the 
neighborhood  to  determine  their  probable  likes  and  dis- 
likes rather  than  to  start  out  with  some  predetermined 
policy  without  regard  to  the  characteristics  of  his  patrons. 
Shows  that  are  to  be  located  in  residential  districts, 
which  cater  principally  to  women  and  children,  require 
a  different  program  and  arrangement  than  those  located 
in  the  business  section  of  the  city.  A  show  in  the  busi- 
ness section  of  the  town  might  prove  a  success  with  a 
saloon  on  either  side  of  it,  but  such  a  location  would 
be  rather  risky  in  the  residence  districts. 

While  many  shows  have  proven  successful  on  side 
streets  and  out  of  the  usual  line  of  traffic,  due  to  the 
steady  patronage  drawn  by  an  excellent  show,  it  will 
usually  be  found  a  slow  and  difficult  process  to  build  up 
this  clientele  compared  to  the  ease  with  which  a  theater 
is  filled  on  the  more  prominent  thoroughfares.  Tran- 
sients do  not  require  the  attention  and  special  induce- 
ments that  must  be  offered  to  the  constant  patrons,  espe- 
cially in  cases  where  there  are  competing  theaters. 
Neighborhood  shows,  especially  .those  patronized  prin- 
cipally by  children,  must  have  a  daily  change  of  films  or 
suffer  a  loss  in  attendance. 

Locations  in  the  vicinity  of  schools  or  churches  are 
usually  to  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion,  owing  to  the 
frequent  "crusades"  organized  against  the  motion-picture 
shows  by  the  notoriety-seeking  politicians  and  clergy.  In 
some  cities  there  are  ordinances  regulating  the  location 
of  picture  shows  in  regard  to  the  schools  and  churches, 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING  97 

and  the  investigator  would  do  well  to  look  up  this  matter 
before  negotiating  for  a  lease.  Similar  regulations  some- 
times govern  the  proximity  to  parks  or  boulevards. 

In  new  territory  where  there  are  no  theaters,  prac- 
tically the  only  method  of  estimating  the  probable  attend- 
ance is  that  used  by  the  street  car  and  interurban  rail- 
road companies,  that  is  by  counting  the  people  passing 
the  proposed  location  and  dividing  this  number  by  a 
suitable  factor,  determined  by  experiment  on  other  sites. 
This  count  should  be  made  every  day  for  a  week  during 
the  time  that  the  theater  would  be  open,  and  should  not 
be  made  during  holidays  or  other  times  of  unusual 
activity.  The  factor,  or  number  by  which  the  total  is 
divided  depends  upon  the  location,  the  time  of  day,  and 
upon  the  general  character  of  the  town,  and  varies  any- 
where from  eight  to  twenty-five;  that  is,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  from  one  out  of  eight  to  one  out  of 
twenty-five  of  the  passers-by  can  be  depended  on  to 
enter  the  show. 

At  night,  in  the  residential  districts,  this  number 
will  be  from  eight  to  ten.  In  mill  towns  having  shops 
that  run  day  and  night  the  same  number  will  probably 
hold  true  between  the  hours  of  two  and  five  o'clock  and 
between  seven  and  nine  in  the  evening.  Saturday  after- 
noons and  evenings  hold  to  the  same  figure  in  nearly  any 
location.  The  purely  shopping  districts,  while  showing 
a  smaller  percentage,  have  the  advantage  of  having  a 
greater  number  of  people  passing,  which  of  course  brings 
the  net  to  a  considerable  figure,  a  fair  average  for  the 
factor  being  from  ten  to  fifteen,  between  the  hours  of  one 
and  seven. 

When  there  are  picture  shows  near  the  site  of  the 
proposed  show  the  matter  of  estimating  is  much  sim- 
plified, for  one  can  accurately  judge  conditions  by 
taking  the  actual  count  of  persons  entering  the  show 
and  also  by  the  bill  offered  to  the  locality.  It  has  been 
the  experience  of  the  writer  that  competition  in  a  given 
neighborhood  really  increased  the  attendance  of  the  first 
show  instead  of  diminishing  it,  and  that  with  equal  con- 
ditions the  second  show  soon  reached  the  attendance 
of  the  first.  From  what  I  have  been  able  to  discover 
this  was  due  to  the  fact  that  a  man  and  his  family  could 
obtain  nearly  a  full  evening's  entertainment  for  a  few 


98  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

cents  by  attending  both  shows,  where  he  would  not  take 
the  trouble  to  go  to  a  show  lasting  only  a  short  time. 
Should  one  show  conflict  with  another  in  a  neighborhood 
having  a  population  of  over  five  thousand,  there  is  cer- 
tain to  be  some  fault  with  the  program,  the  manage- 
ment, or  the  appearance  of  the  unsuccessful  show. 

Should  there  be  one  unsuccessful  show  in  a  neigh- 
borhood that  is  large  enough  and  prosperous  enough  to 
support  it,  it  should  be  carefully  examined  for  faults  by 
the  owner  of  the  prospective  theater  so  that  he  can  avoid 
the  same  errors.  He  should  note  the  color  and  decora- 
tions of  the  front,  the  arrangement  of  the  advertising 
"heralds,"  the  comfort  of  the  seating,  the  ventilation 
and  the  courtesy  of  the  cashier  and  manager.  Next, 
but  not  least,  he  should  note  the  character  and  condition 
of  the  films  and  the  steadiness  of  the  projection.  If  the 
theater  in  question  has  a  sloppy,  untidy  front,  plastered 
with  old  bills  arranged  in  a  haphazard  manner,  or  if  it  has 
a  dirty  and  odorous  interior  and  uncomfortable  seats,  he 
has  probably  discovered  one  of  the  principal  reasons 
why  the  theater  is  not  patronized  by  the  better  class  of 
people  in  the  neighborhood.  The  solution  of  the  diffi- 
culty is  obvious. 

Scratched  or  "rainy"  films,  that  jiggle  and  jump  on 
the  screen,  and  frequent  intermission  for  repairs  to  the 
film  or  machine,  disgust  the  average  picture  show  patron, 
who  will  probably  never  repeat  his  first  visit.  If  the 
pictures  are  clean  and  the  projection  comparatively  steady 
note  whether  the  subject  of  the  plays  please  or  displease 
the  audience,  or  whether  the  music  is  up  to  the  usual 
standard.  While  making  the  count  of  the  patrons  see 
how  frequently  the  films  and  songs  are  changed,  possibly 
they  are  not  changed  often  enough.  With  two  adjacent 
shows,  the  matter  of  estimate  is  made  much  easier,  for 
then  one  can  compare  the  successful  show  with  the  fail- 
ure and  determine  what  is  required  by  that  particular 
locality. 

It  is  stated  by  several  authorities  that  a  town  of  one 
thousand  should  pay  from  $35.00  to  $50.00  per  week  into 
the  ticket  office,  which  is  the  same  thing  as  multiplying 
the  census  population  by  0.05.  This  checks  very  closely 
with  the  conditions  in  Chicago,  where  400  picture  shows 
serve  a  little  over  two  million  people. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  99 

When  the  theoretical  count  is  checked,  approxi- 
mately, with  the  count  of  some  theater  in  the  locality, 
the  expenditure  necessary  for  building  the  theater  and 
the  running  expenses  should  be  considered.  The  rent 
and  pay-roll  are  among  the  most  important  factors  in  well 
settled  communities,  and  the  prospective  owner  should 
carefully  examine  into  these  features  of  the  expense. 
The  current  taken  by  the  projector  generally  runs  second 
in  expense  to  those  mentioned. 

STARTING  THE  THEATER. 

Before  starting  actual  work  on  the  theater,  the 
builder  should  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  city 
ordinances  governing  the  fire  risks,  form  of  exits,  etc. 
In  addition  he  should  carefully  study  the  requirements 
of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  in  regard 
to  the  wiring  and  fireproofing  of  the  operator's  booth. 
In  the  larger  cities  the  ordinances  are  very  rigid  in  regard 
to  the  arrangement  and  the  seating,  and  the  smallest 
deviation  from  the  prescribed  construction  is  likely  to 
cost  the  builder  quite  a  sum  of  money  in  alterations. 

In  selecting  a  store  building  for  a  motion  picture 
theater  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  ceiling  should 
be  high  enough  to  accommodate  the  operator's  booth 
over  the  entrance  and  still  leave  head  room  enough  so 
that  the  audience  can  enter  without  stooping.  The  booth 
should  be  high  enough  so  that  the  light  passing  from  the 
projector  to  the  screen  will  not  be  interrupted  by  persons 
passing  down  the  aisles  to  the  seats.  A  sloping  floor 
should  be  laid  over  the  original  floor  of  the  store,  so  that 
people  occupying  the  rear  seats  may  have  a  clear  view 
of  the  screen  and  stage.  As  the  high  portion  of  the  false 
floor  is  in  the  rear  of  the  theater  and  directly  under  the 
operator's  booth,  plenty  of  clearance  should  be  allowed 
at  this  point. 

As  the  highest  part  of  the  false  floor  lies  from  eight 
to  ten  feet  back  from  the  building  line  and  is  higher  than 
the  sidewalk  line,  it  should  be  connected  with  the  side- 
walk by  another  floor  that  slopes  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. Steps  should  never  be  used  from  the  entrance  to 
the  sidewalk  in  any  case,  because  of  the  danger  in  enter- 
ing the  theater  in  the  dark  and  because  of  the  danger  in 
case  of  fire.  They  are  prohibited  in  the  majority  of 
cities  for  the  latter  reason.  The  most  comfortable  slope 


100  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

for  the  main  floor  is  one  in  eight,  or  a  rise  of  one  foot 
in  the  vertical  to  eight  horizontally. 

The  slope  in  the  front  of  the  house  terminates  at  the 
stage,  the  latter  being  from  three  feet  to  four  feet  above 
the  floor  level.  The  lower  edge  of  the  screen  is  usually 
arranged  so  that  it  comes  a  few  inches  above  the  floor 
of  the  stage,  or  so  that  it  may  easily  be  seen  by  the  occu- 
pants of  the  front  seats.  When  the  seats  are  ordered 
they  should  be  specified  for  the  sloping  floor  and  the 
amount  of  the  slope  should  also  be  given  in  the  instruc- 
tions. The  first  row  of  seats  in  front  of  the  stage  is 
usually  set  level,  as  this  arrangement  raises  the  line 
of  sight  and  is  more  comfortable  in  looking  over  the 
front  edge  of  the  stage. 

In  cases  where  the  ordinances  require  the  upper  end 
of  the  floor  to  be  level  with  the  side  walk,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  pull  up  the  floor  and  cut  through  the  joists, 
an  expensive  operation.  With  the  Ordinary  store-room 
a  raised  floor  can  be  constructed  by  placing  a  few  tres- 
tles across  the  room  that  gradually  decrease  in  height 
from  the  street  end  of  the  house  to  the  stage.  Joists  are 
laid  on  the  trestles  and  the  flooring  is  nailed  to  the  joists. 

When  converting  an  ordinary  store  room  into  a  mo- 
tion picture  theater  it  is  usual  to  remove  the  original 
glass  front  and  its  framing  and  install  a  wall  a  few  feet 
back  from  the  building  line  in  which  is  placed  the  ticket 
seller's  booth.  On  either  side  of  the  booth  are  placed 
the  entrance  and  exit  doors,  which  may  be  either  of  the 
single  or  double  swing  variety.  The  operator's  booth  is 
fastened  inside  of  this  wall,  and  a  ventilation  hole  is 
pierced  through  it  somewhere  above  the  ticket  booth,  so 
that  the  operator  may  have  a  little  chance  at  the  cool, 
fresh  air.  The  distance  of  the  wall  from  the  sidewalk  line 
depends  greatly  upon  the  size  of  the  theater,  it  being  ad- 
visable to  devote  as  much  space  as  can  be  spared  for 
this  lobby,  so  that  the  patrons  that  are  waiting  for  ad- 
mission to  the  next  show  can  be  kept  off  the  sidewalk. 
In  the  smaller  shows  it  is  seldom  possible  to  devote  more 
than  six  feet  for  this  space,  as  more  would  seriously  re- 
duce the  seating  capacity. 

The  character  of  the  doors  and  their  fastenings  is 
generally  regulated  by  ordinance  in  the  larger  cities,  both 
doors  usually  being  required  to  open  outwards  so  that 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING          101 

in  case  of  fire  they  would  be  opened  automatically  by  the 
pushing  of  the  crowd.  To  prevent  the  crowd  from  en- 
tering the  exit  door  it  is  usually  of  the  single  swing  pat- 
tern, opening  outwardly,  and  is  not  provided  with  hand 
holds  on  the  outside.  The  entrance  door  is  almost  inva- 
riably of  the  double  swing  type.  High  partitions  are 
placed  opposite  and  about  four  feet  back  of  both  doors, 


Fig.    42.      Typical    Theater    Front. 

the  width  being  slightly  greater  than  the  width  of  the 
door,  so  that  they  will  prevent  lights  in  the  street  from 
being  thrown  on  the  screen.  In  some  cases  these  walls 
are  about  six  feet  high,  with  a  four  foot  curtain  of  heavy 
material  carried  on  the  top. 

Either  at  the  entrance  door  or  between  the  entrance 
door  and  the  aisle,  is  a  chain  or  a  movable  bar  that  can 
be  used  to  hold  the  incoming  patrons  until  there  is  a 
vacant  seat,  or  to  prevent  them  from  interfering  with 
those  passing  out  at  the  end  of  the  show.  The  ticket 
taker  is  located  at  this  point,  and  his  position  should  be 


102          MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 

arranged  so  that  he  not  only  controls  the  entrance  pas- 
sage but  has  a  free  view  of  the  aisle  as  well. 

As  the  operating  booth  is  usually  located  over  the 
entrance  passage,  in  the  smaller  theaters,  the  floor  of  the 
booth  should  be  at  least  seven  feet  above  the  main  floor 
so  that  there  is  plenty  of  head  room  for  those  passing 
through  the  door.  This  booth  may  be  either  erected  over 
the  ticket  seller's  booth,  forming  a  second  story  of  the 
latter,  or  it  may  be  an  independent  structure  erected 
upon  the  the  wall  and  posts  extending  over  the  passage 
and  into  the  partition.  Every  city  requires  an  absolutely 
fire-proof  booth  built  either  of  sheet  iron  or  a  com- 
bination of  sheet  iron  and  asbestos,  so  that  a  film  fire 
will  be  confined  to  the  booth,  at  least  until  the  audience 
has  had  time  to  escape.  Entrance  is  had  to  the  booth 
through  a  ladder,  placed  in  a  convenient  place  where  it 
will  not  interfere  with  the  audience  or  obstruct  the  pas- 
sageways. 

The  booth  should  be  at  least  six  feet  by  seven,  or 
preferably  eight,  for  a  single  projector,  and  not  less  than 
eighteen  square  feet  should  be  added  for  each  additional 
machine.  The  height  should  not  be  less  than  six  feet  and 
preferably  seven  so  as  to  allow  a  little  air  space  over  the 
operator's  head.  If  the  booth  is  sheathed  with  metal  it 
should  either  be  insulated,  or  the  inside  plastered,  so 
that  an  accidental  contact  with  a  wire  would  not  cause 
a  fire  because  of  a  short  circuit.  Asbestos  forms  an  ideal 
lining,  as  it  is  both  fireproof  and  an  insulating  material. 

A  fixed  booth  should  have  a  fireproof  flue  leading 
from  the  booth  to  the  outside  air,  in  case  there  is  not 
sufficient  window  opening  to  obtain  fresh  air,  this  flue 
being  furnished  with  a  mechanically  or  electrically  oper- 
ated fan.  The  fresh  air  in  this  case  should  enter  through 
small  screened  openings,  at  a  point  near  the  bottom  of 
the  booth  through  which  the  fan  could  draw  at  least  200 
cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  for  each  machine.  These 
small  openings,  entering  the  theater  proper,  will  aid 
greatly  in  ventilating  the  entire  building. 

On  the  auditorium  side  of  the  operator's  booth  there 
should  be  two  openings,  one  for  the  projection  of  the 
picture,  and  the  other  for  the  operator  so  that  he  can 
view  the  image  on  the  screen.  All  of  these  openings  in 
the  booth  should  be  equipped  with  steel  drop  doors,  fitted 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 


103 


with  fusible  links,  so  that  in  case  of  fire  in  the  booth,  the 
doors  would  be  automatically  dropped  by  the  melting  of 
the  links.  No  opening  should  be  unguarded  by  fire- 
proof shutters.  The  door  through  which  the  operator 
has  access  to  the  booth  should  be  provided  with  an  auto- 
matic catch  so  that  it  will  remain  closed  when  the  booth 
is  in  use.  Only  sheet  iron  fire  doors  should  be  used. 


Fig.   43.     An   Odd  Type   of  Theater   Front. 

As  all  film  repairs  and  rewinding  should  be  done 
outside  of  the  booth,  a  separate  booth  is  often  provided 
for  this  purpose,  this  being  fireproof  as  well  as  the  oper- 
ating booth.  If  this  is  not  possible  the  rewinding  must 
be  done  in  the  operating  booth,  never  in  the  auditorium. 

The  chairs  can  either  be  fastened  individually  to 
the  floor  or  fastened  together  in  rows,  in  the  latter  case 
at  least  three  of  the  chairs  should  be  fastened  together. 


104          MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

The  chairs  should  preferably  be  of  the  opera  type,  which 
can  be  furnished  at  a  comparatively  small  cost,  and  be 
not  less  than  32  inches  from  back  to  back  and  not  less 
than  18  inches  in  width.  The  chair  arrangement  should 
be  such  that  there  is  not  less  than  4^2  square  feet  of  floor 
surface  for  each  occupant,  to  insure  proper  ventilation 
and  to  prevent  overcrowding.  No  aisles  should  be  less 
than  three  feet  in  width  nor  should  the  total  aisle 
space  be  less  than  ten  feet  in  width,  for  shows  up  to 
500  capacity.  This  aisle  width  (total  in  case  of  more 
than  one  aisle)  should  be  increased  one  foot  for  every 
fifty  occupants  in  excess  of  600.  Fire  exits  should  not 
be  less  than  three  feet  in  the  clear. 

When  balconies  are  used  they  should  never  seat  in 
excess  of  one-third  of  the  total  capacity  of  the  theater, 
and  should  have  exits  leading  direct  to  the  street  or 
alley,  so  that,  in  case  of  fire,  the  occupants  of  the  gal- 
lery will  not  interfere  with  the  exit  of  those  on  the  main 
floor.  The  exits  from  the  balcony  or  main  floor  should 
be  not  less  than  five  feet  in  width,  and  the  stairs  leading 
from  a  balcony  seating  150  should  not  be  less  than  ten 
feet  in  width.  The  latter  should  be  increased  by  one  foot 
in  width  for  every  increase  of  fifty  persons  over  150. 

The  lighting  of  the  theater  during  the  per- 
formance should  be  accomplished  so  that  while  there 
is  sufficient  light  for  a  patron  to  find  his  way  in  or 
out,  the  light  should  not  be  bright  enough  or  arranged 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  interfere  with  the  viewing  of  the 
pictures.  All  of  the  corridors  should  be  so  lighted  that 
a  person  can  easily  leave  the  show  at  any  time  during  the 
performance,  and  all  of  the  fire  escapes  or  fire  exits 
should  be  provided  with  a  red  lamp  over  the  opening  so 
that  it  is  plainly  visible  from  any  place  in  the  theater. 
Eight  candle-power  lamps  spaced  along  the  wall  at  in- 
tervals of  about  eight  feet  will  generally  provide  sufficient 
illumination,  although  this  may  be  increased,  without 
inconveniencing  the  audience,  if  the  proper  shades  are 
employed. 

The  screen  may  be  either  a  muslin  curtain,  a  white 
painted  drop,  a  metal  surface,  or  a  glass  mirror  screen, 
depending  upon  the  amount  of  money  that  the  exhibi- 
tor wishes  to  invest.  The  more  efficient  the  screen  as  a 
reflector,  the  clearer  the  pictures  and  the  less  will  be 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING          105 


106          MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

the  current  consumption  to  obtain  a  given  illumination. 
Of  the  screens  mentioned,  the  muslin  is  the  cheapest, 
but  is  also  the  lowest  in  reflecting  value.  A  fabric  cur- 
tain of  muslin  or  painted  cloth  is  often  made  necessary 
for  the  reason  that  it  must  be  rolled  up  during  vaudeville 
acts,  which  of  course  would  be  impossible  with  metallic 
surfaces  or  glass  mirror  screens. 

Canvas  screens  covered  with  a  form  of  aluminum 
bronze  paint  are  very  efficient  reflectors  and  are  capable 
of  being  rolled  and  unrolled  many  times  without  in- 
jury, providing  that  no  wrinkles  are  allowed  to  form 
on  the  surfaces.  Should  wrinkles  occur  on  a  metal- 
lized screen  they  are  much  more  prominent  than  with  a 
muslin  screen,  because  of  the  high  reflecting  surface.  A 
metallized  surface  is  much  more  brilliant  in  the  high 
lights  than  a  cloth  screen  and  adds  considerably  to  the 
detail  in  the  shadows,  and  there  is  no  doubt  but  what 
it  adds  greatly  to  the  pleasure  of  the  spectator  for  this 
reason. 

No  matter  what  surface  is  used  with  a  rolling  drop, 
means  must  be  employed  to  fasten  it  securely  at  the 
sides  and  bottom  to  prevent  its  waving  in  the  currents  of 
air  passing  through  the  theater.  Either  a  heavy  pole 
must  be  used  at  the  bottom  or  a  tackle  must  be  used  to 
fasten  it  to  the  floor  of  the  stage.  The  waving  of  a 
screen  produces  very  disagreeable  effects  and  should  be 
reduced  to  the  lowest  possible  limit.  When  the  screens 
are  not  rolled  up,  the  fabric  may  be  mounted  on  a  wood- 
en frame  and  stretched  tight,  so  that  there  is  no  possi- 
bility of  movement. 

Plaster  screens  having  a  dead  white  finish  coat 
give  good  results,  if  kept  clean,  and  are  better  reflec- 
tors of  light  than  muslin.  If  the  screen  is  to  be  placed 
flat  against  the  wall  a  white  finish  coat  can  be  given 
by  the  pasterers,  and  a  black  painted  border  run  around 
for  a  frame.  The  border  should  not  be  neglected,  for 
it  adds  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  projection  and  is  ef- 
fective in  eliminating  the  ragged  edge  appearance  of 
an  old  or  patched  film. 

A  mirror  screen  gives  the  greatest  brilliancy  to  the 
picture  because  of  its  high  reflecting  value,  and,  there- 
fore, gives  better  results  with  the  same  current,  or  the 
same  results  with  less  current,  than  the  muslin  or  plaster 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING          107 
,P/ * .$- 


108  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

screens.  The  mirror  used  for  this  purpose  is  of  thick 
glass,  silvered  on  the  back,  and  has  a  ground  or  frosted 
front  surface.  The  ground  glass  surface  reflects  a  por- 
tion of  the  light,  the  balance  passing  through  the  glass 
to  the  silvered  surface  where  it  is  again  reflected 
back  to  the  audience. 

When  the  projector  is  above  the  center  of  the 
screen,  as  it  generally  is,  and  is  pointed  down,  it  is 
necessary  to  tip  the  screen  back  at  the  top  so  that  the 
screen  is  perpendicular  to  the  optical  center  of  the  pro- 
jector. If  this  is  not  done,  the  image  on  the  screen  will 
be  distorted,  the  amount  of  distortion  being  proportional 
to  the  angle  made  by  the  optical  center  with  the  screen. 
For  the  same  reason,  the  projector  should  be  set  exactly 
in  the  center  of  the  screen  in  a  horizontal  direction. 

The  construction  of  the  ornamental  "front"  should 
be  let  to  the  concerns  that  make  a  specialty  of  such  work, 
for  in  few  cases  are  the  local  contractors  capable  of  ar- 
ranging the  work  artistically  or  even  economically.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  the  appearance  of  the  front 
is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  exhibitor  for  it  is 
from  this  that  the  customers  receive  their  first  impression 
of  the  house.  It  is  poor  economy  to  cheapen  this  part 
of  the  work,  or  to  employ  incompetent  labor  in  its  in- 
stallation. 

While  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  an  elaborate  or 
highly  ornamental  front,  it  should  be  neat  and  attractive 
and  free  from  the  gew-gaw  arrangements  affected  by 
shooting  galleries,  that  attract  an  undesirable  class  of 
patrons.  The  cost  of  fronts  varies  as  much  as  the  cost  of 
the  buildings  in  which  they  are  installed,  running  from 
$500  to  as  high  a  figure  as  the  owner  will  wish  to  pay, 
these  figures  including  the  cost  of  the  ticket  seller's  and 
operator's  booths.  'In  shopping  districts  of  large  cities, 
desirable  fronts  will  probably  average  $2,000. 

White  is  almost  universally  adopted  as  the  color  of 
the  front,  not  only  for  the  reason  that  it  is  prominent  and 
stands  out  in  relief  against  the  usual  dark  business  build- 
ings by  which  it  is  surrounded,  but  because  it  is  cheer- 
ful and  pleasing,  especially  at  night.  Nothing  is  pret- 
tier than  a  well  kept,  clean,  white  show  front,  providing 
that  the  architecture  is  in  keeping  with  the  simplicity 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          109 

of  the  color  scheme.  White  enamel  brick  is  a  splendid 
material  for  the  construction,  for  it  is  brilliant  at  night, 
is  easily  kept  clean,  and  never  requires  repainting.  A 
dark  structure  does  not  suggest  the  character  of  the 
place,  and  is  usually  passed  by  the  transient,  especially  in 
the  day  time. 

Bulletin  boards  for  the  "heralds"  or  advertising 
matter  may  be  placed  on  the  side  walls  or  upon  easels 
placed  slightly  in  front  of  the  ticket  booth.  Program 
boards  giving  the  program  of  the  show  running  at  that 
time  are  usually  placed  on  the  front  edge  of  the  wall, 
near  the  sidewalk.  Care  should  be  taken  in  arranging  the 
displays  so  that  they  will  present  a  neat  appearance,  and 
because  of  the  character  of  the  bills  this  is  not  always 
an  easy  thing  to  do.  Carelessly  placed  posters  can  easily 
ruin  the  architectural  effect  of  the  theater. 

At  night  the  show  front  should  be  well  lighted,  both 
by  incandescent  ceiling  lights  and  by  an  electric  sign 
that  extends  over  the  sidewalk.  The  current  expended 
in  the  illumination  is  insignificant,  when  compared  with 
the  results  that  it  brings  in  the  way  of  increased  patron- 
age, especially  in  thickly  populated  districts,  where  there 
is  much  to  distract  the  attention  of  the  prospective  trade. 
A  well  lighted  lobby  attracts  more  attention  than  all  of 
the  automatic  noise  makers  in  existence.  A  very  simple 
sign  is  sufficient  in  the  residential  districts,  where  there 
is  not  so  much  to  obstruct  the  view,  a  single  word  in 
four  candle  power  lamps  will  usually  be  sufficient  in 
this  case.  In  locations  where  there  is  much  light,  a  more 
elaborate  sign  will  be  required,  having  more  lights  and 
a  more  fanciful  design,  or  one  of  the  flashing  variety 
that  intermittently  lights  and  extinguishes.  The  latter 
type,  the  "flashers,"  are  the  more  expensive,  as  they  must 
be  provided  with  a  motor  driven  switch  that  automati- 
cally switches  the  lamps  in  their  proper  relation,  but 
are  by  far  the  most  attractive. 

THE   AIRDOME 

An  airdome  is  simply  an  outdoor  moving  picture 
show  that  is  run  on  practically  the  same  lines  as  the 
old  summer  garden,  and  is  therefore  essentially  a  fair- 
weather  show,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  although  a  few 
airdomes  are  equipped  with  pavillions.  It  is  contained 
within  a  fenced  enclosure,  the  screen  being  at  one  end  of 


110 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 


the  yard  and  the  operator's  booth  at  the  other,  the  inter- 
vening space  being  filled  with  chairs  and  tables.  Usual- 
ly a  stage  is  built  in  front  of  the  screen  for  vaudeville 
or  for  a  band. 

The  refreshment  tables,  that  are  occasionally  in  evi- 
dence in  the  airdome,  bring  in  a  very  considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  receipts,  for  the  crowds  seeking  enter- 
tainment during  the  summer  are  far  more  liberal  in 
this  matter  than  those  patronizing  the  theater  in  the  win- 
ter. When  refreshments  are  served  it  is  either  necessary 
to  provide  a  pavillion  for  this  department,  or  obtain  the 
use  of  a  building  immediately  adjacent  to  the  house. 

Nothing  elaborate,  either  in  the  exterior  or  inter- 
ior equipment  is  necessary  for  a  successful  airdome. 
The  chairs  and  tables  may  be  of  the  ordinary  kitchen 
variety  painted  an  appropriate  color,  and  the  booths 
merely  sheds  without  any  pretence  of  architectural  beau- 
ty. The  illumination  scheme  is  simple,  consisting  of 
waterproof  incandescent  wall  fixtures  mounted  on  the 
fences  and  pavillions,  or  strung  along  weather-proof 
leads  strung  from  one  post  to  another.  The  ticket  booth 
is  a  simple  form  of  sentry  box  located  at  the  gate. 

When  it  possible  for  the  owner  of  an  existing  thea- 
ter to  obtain  a  lease  on  a  vacant  lot  next  to  his  theater, 
it  is  possible  for  him  to  have  an  all  year  business,  for 
when  the  weather  becomes  warm  and  the  patronage  of 
his  theater  declines,  he  has  simply  to  move  his  projector 
into  the  park  and  continue  his  business  in  the  open  air. 
This  arrangement  solves  the  dull  season  problem  ex- 
perienced by  every  manager  during  the  summer. 

THE    PROGRAM. 

After  the  construction  is  completed,  the  manager 
will  be  brought  to  face  with  one  of  the  most  difficult 
problems  met  in  the  motion  picture  business,  that  of 
choosing  a  suitable  program  for  an  unknown  audience. 
Nearly  every  theater  owner  has  started  out  with  the  mis- 
taken idea  that  he  would  furnish  a  program  along  some 
particular  line,  such  as  educational  releases,  travel  pic- 
tures, comedy,  etc.,  that  would  make  his  place  of  busi- 
ness "distinctive,"  and  out  of  the  ordinary.  In  his  mind's 
eye  he  sees  a  flaming  placard,  such  as  "The  House  of 
Comedy,"  "The  Travalogue,"  or  some  equivalent  title 
denoting  the  uplift  movement,  or  some  similar  interest 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING          HI 

that  he  believes  is  shared  by  the  majority  of  his  future 
patrons.  The  opening  night  passes,  and  with  it  comes 
the  awakening,  for  his  pet  subject  has  either  been  met 
with  cool  indifference  or  open  complaint.  The  trouble 
has  been  that  this  man  simply  studied  himself,  and  not 
his  audience. 

A  first  week  program  should  be  as  diversified  as 
possible,  including  every  thing  from  dramas  to  scen- 
ics,  the  ultimate  program  being  determined  by  a  process 
of  elimination,  rather  than  one  of  construction.  The 
taste  varies  with  the  locality,  and  the  popularity  of  any 
one  subject  is  soon  found,  if  the  manager  will  pay  at- 
tention to  the  comments  of  the  audience  as  they  leave 
the  theater.  He  should  endeavor  to  connect  the  criti- 
cisms with  the  people  by  whom  they  are  made,  and 
serve  the  regular  attendance  as  nearly  as  possible  with 
what  they  require.  The  picture  fan  is  the  foundation  of 
his  business,  and  is  soon  lost  if  a  competitive  house 
opens  in  the  vicinity  that  offers  shows  more  to  his  lik- 
ing. 

An  affable  manager  is  an  asset  to  any  theater,  es- 
pecially in  the  residential  districts,  and  if  he  assumes 
the  duties  of  an  usher,  or  stands  at  the  door  and  greets 
his  patrons  pleasantly  he  has  made  a  long  step  in  es- 
tablishing the  house  in  the  esteem  of  the  neighborhood. 
By  chatting  casually  with  the  members  of  his  audience, 
he  not  only  discovers  their  likes  and  dislikes,  but  also 
learns  many  things  concerning  his  competitors  that  are 
often  to  his  advantage,  such  as  the  advertising  methods, 
songs,  pleasing  vaudeville  acts  that  they  have  presented, 
or  methods  of  reducing  the  cost  of  operation.  From 
the  same  source  he  discovers  the  results  of  incivility 
among  his  employees,  a  matter  to  which  he  cannot  pay 
too  much  attention. 

The  film  exchanges,  from  which  the  exhibitor  ob- 
tains his  films,  take  all  of  the  films  from  the  producers 
that  they  represent,  at  the  same  price  per  reel,  and  con- 
sequently has  no  particular  interest  in  picking  a  suitable 
program  for  the  exhibitor.  If  the  exhibitor  is  to  receive 
the  class  of  photo-plays  that  his  audience  demands,  he 
must  watch  the  releases  carefully  and  see  that  he  gets 
what  he  pays  for.  To  keep  thoroughly  in  touch  with  the 
new  releases,  the  theater  manager  should  constantly  study 


112  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

the  motion  picture  trade  journals  and  note  the  release 
dates  of  the  films  that  strike  his  fancy.  From  these 
magazines  he  can  obtain  the  story  of  the  films  and  pic- 
tures illustrating  the  vital  points  in  its  action,  and  through 
the  film  records  that  list  the  plays,  together  with  their 
dates,  he  can  keep  in  touch  with  the  entire  situation. 

In  the  larger  cities,  the  film  exchanges  provide  the 
exhibitor  with  the  opportunity  of  witnessing  the  films 
from  start  to  finish  in  their  small  show  rooms.  In  this 
case  the  exhibitor  is  in  a  position  to  choose  intelligently 
and  list  such  features  as  may  appear  desirable.  In  the 
case  of  outlying  theaters  using  second  and  third  run 
films,  it  is  best  for  the  manager  to  visit  several  of  the 
larger  city  theaters  where  he  can  view  the  films  of  which 
he  has  read,  and  listen  to  the  comments  of  the  audience. 
The  attitude  of  the  audience  will  prove  as  a  guide  in 
selecting  the  release  and  will  put  the  exhibitor  in  more 
intimate  contact  with  the  theater-going  public. 

Feature  films,  which  are  unusual  elaborate  or  ex- 
traordinary productions,  generally  two  or  more  reels  in 
length,  should  be  carefully  examined  at  the  exchange  or 
elsewhere  before  being  extensively  advertised  by  the 
exhibitor.  While  these  films  are  energetically  pushed 
by  the  manufacturers,  and  are  often  films  of  merit,  they 
may  not  be  of  a  class  suited  to  the  theater  under  consid- 
eration, and  therefore  should  be  carefully  investigated 
by  the  management  before  devoting  the  evening  to  a  mul- 
ti-reel subject.  When  a  multi-reel  feature  is  decided  up- 
on, it  should  be  advertised  by  the  theater  for  several 
days  in  advance  of  its  appearance,  by  displaying  posters 
in  front  of  the  theater,  and  often  by  handbills.  A  fea- 
ture film  should  be  made  a  feature,  and  special  atten- 
tion should  be  paid  to  the  subject  of  publicity. 

Many  theaters  have  "special  program"  night  on 
which  they  exhibit  one  certain  make  of  film  only,  regard- 
less of  the  subject.  A  permanent  announcement  board 
at  the  front  of  the  theater  lists  the  nights  on  which  the 
admirers  of  any  one  producer  can  view  his  favorite 
film :  "Selig  night,  Tuesday ;"  "Essanay  night,  Wednes- 
day," and  so  forth.  The  success  of  this  arrangement  is 
due  to  the  popularity  of  the  actors  and  actresses  em- 
ployed by  the  different  film  concerns,  whom  the  moving 
picture  fans  regard  in  the  same  light  as  "matinee  idols" 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  H3 

of  the  legitimate  theater  are  worshipped.  Managers  of 
theaters  that  have  adopted  this  system  have  noted  that 
quite  a  percentage  of  their  audiences  appear  only  on 
nights  when  a  certain  make  is  announced. 

When  there  are  many  children  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  theater  it  is  advisable  to  try  the  experiment  of 
offering  some  film  that  would  interest  them  particularly. 
These  films  should  be  shown  shortly  after  the  close  of 
school  and  on  Saturday  afternoons.  Animal  pictures, 
trick  pictures,  and  scenics  in  which  there  is  much  action 
generally  make  a  hit  at  the  children's  performances. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  make  these  entertainments 
too  "high-brow,"  nor  should  dramas  be  included. 

Whether  a  theater  should  have  a  vaudeville  act  in 
connection  with  the  pictures  can  only  be  solved  by  ex- 
periment. Many  people  object  strenuously  to  the  intro- 
duction of  vaudeville,  as  they  had  rather  have  pictures 
only  for  their  money.  Others  are  dissatisfied  with  the 
kind  of  program  that  is  sometimes  presented  by  a  careless 
picture  show  manager,  a  condition  usually  found  in  the 
better  class  of  residential  districts.  In  our  opinion  it  is 
best  to  exhibit  pictures  and  pictures  only,  with  possibly 
an  occasional  song  number,  than  to  offer  a  program  that 
is  cut  up  and  lacking  in  character.  Let  the  vaudeville 
houses  run  the  vaudeville. 

Illustrated  songs  are  a  matter  of  taste,  some  pre- 
fering  the  song  slides  and  others  the  "spot  light"  sing- 
er, and  as  there  are  many  large  and  excellent  city 
houses  employing  both  methods,  it  is  hard  to  say  which 
is  the  best.  The  use  of  song  slides  involves  an  additional 
expense,  and  additional  equipment  and  handling  in  the 
operator's  booth.  In  many  of  the  larger  houses  it  is  com- 
mon practice  to  have  one  or  even  two  additional  oper- 
ators in  the  booth  simply  for  the  projection  of  the  slides 
and  announcements.  In  case  it  is  decided  to  run  illus- 
trated songs,  the  slides  may  be  obtained  either  from  the 
film  agency  or  from  an  agency  that  makes  a  specialty  of 
song  slides. 

Almost  any  locality  is  capable  of  producing  a  sing- 
er or  pianist  for  the  musical  features  of  the  show  at  a 
moderate  price.  The  salary  of  these  people  will  naturally 
vary  considerably,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  town 
and  upon  the  local  musicians'  union,  if  there  is  one,  the 


11*  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

outside  limits  ranging  from  $1  to  $3  per  evening.  When 
a  drummer  is  added  to  the  "orchestra,"  he  should  re- 
ceive the  same  amount  as  the  pianist,  except  where  the 
local  union  rules  otherwise.  An  automatic  piano  or 
orchestrion  may  either  be  rented  or  bought  outright, 
and  is  effective  in  reducing  the  expense  in  the  smaller 
houses.  In  some  cases  these  instruments  are  used  to 
provide  music  during  the  intervals  between  the  songs 
while  the  pictures  are  running,  the  pianist  at  this  time 
performing  other  duties  around  the  show,  such  as  tend- 
ing the  ticket  box  or  ushering.  This  latter  arrangement 
is  often  made  when  the  manager  assumes  the  part  of 
the  pianist.  The  automatic  player  is  also  useful  when 
the  musicians  fail  to  appear. 

Vaudeville  acts  should  be  booked  from  a  dramatic 
agency,  which  is  by  far  the  most  reliable  method  open 
to  the  exhibitor.  The  cost  of  these  acts  will  run  from 
$25  for  each  actor  per  week,  up  to  any  price  that  the 
exhibitor  can  afford  to  pay.  When  embarking  in  the 
vaudeville  line,  the  proprietor  of  the  show  should  care- 
fully follow  the  different  acts  that  are  being  put  on  by 
the  various  booking  agencies,  so  that  this  portion  of 
the  entertainment  will  be  the  best  that  it  is  possible  to 
procure  at  the  price.  In  neighborhood  theaters,  or  where 
the  patrons  are  in  the  habit  of  visiting  a  show  more  than 
once  in  a  week,  it  is  usual  to  present  two  different  acts 
in  a  single  week. 

When  the  owners  of  two  nearby  theaters  can  co- 
operate with  one  another,  or  when  two  theaters  are  run 
by  one  man,  it  is  possible  for  each  theater  to  hire  an 
act,  and  then  exchange  them  in  the  middle  of  the  week, 
thus  giving  each  house  two  changes  of  bill  each  week. 
The  same  method  may  be  adopted  in  handling  the  film. 

The  rental  price  of  film  varies  with  its  age,  a  "first 
run,"  or  new  film,  being  the  most  expensive,  from 
which  point  the  price  tapers  down  until  the  film  is 
no  longer  fit  for  service.  The  price  also  varies  consider- 
ably with  the  amount  of  competition  existing  between  the 
film  agencies  in  the  town  from  which  the  film  is  obtained. 
As  a  rule,  the  cost  of  a  "first  run"  film  is  only  justified 
in  the  larger  cities,  where  the  motion  picture  patrons 
have  every  opportunity  of  seeing  the  latest  productions 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING          H5 

and  where  it  would  be  suicidal  for  a  shopping  district 
show  to  exhibit  anything  but  the  newest  features. 

Except  for  the  topicals  or  "weeklies,"  very  few  of 
the  films  lose  interest  for  the  reason  that  they  are  two 
or  three  weeks  older  than  their  release  dates,  and  there- 
fore they  are  as  much  appreciated  by  the  audiences  of 
the  smaller  communities  as  the  subjects  hot  from  the 
factory.  As  long  as  the  film  is  clean,  and  whole,  and 
without  rainy  spots  or  torn-out  sprocket  holes,  it  is  good 
for  thirty  days  after  its  release  in  any  small  town,  until 
competition  makes  it  necessary  to  book  films  of  more 
recent  date.  After  a  film  is  more  than  thirty  days  old,  it 
is  known  as  a  "commercial,"  and  because  of  its  long  serv- 
ice, is  usually  in  such  a  bad  condition  mechanically,  that 
it  is  inadvisable  to  run  a  show  made  up  exclusively  of 
these  films. 

When  three  reels  are  run  per  show,  one  of  these 
may  be  a  commercial  and  the  others  not  older  than  ten 
or  fifteen  days,  this  arrangement  permitting  a  fairly 
good  show  at  a  small  expense.  One  commercial  in  a 
two-reel  show  is  too  conspicuous,  unless  the  exhibitor  is 
fortunate  enough  to  procure  his  films  in  a  better  condi- 
tion than  is  common  with  this  class.  Two-reel,  ten-day 
film  shows  are  the  most  common  in  the  suburban  dis- 
tricts of  large  cities,  two  and  three-reel  first  runs  being 
confined  strictly  to  the  shopping  and  business  districts. 
Very  few  of  the  show's  patrons  will  put  up  with  the  con- 
tinual breaking  of  old  patches,  and  the  jiggling  and  flut- 
tering rain-streaked  commercial. 

When  an  exhibitor  is  paying  for  films  less  than 
thirty  days  old,  he  should  check  up  the  exchange  so  that 
he  may  be  sure  that  he  is  getting  what  he  is  paying  for. 
This  may  be  done  by  means  of  the  film  records  contained 
in  the  back  of  the  motion  picture  trade  magazines  that 
list  all  of  the  films  produced  by  the  various  film  manu- 
facturing companies,  together  with  their  release  dates. 
One  magazine  in  particular  publishes  a  small  film  record 
hand-book  in  which  all  of  the  films  are  recorded  in  the 
order  of  their  release  dates,  which  makes  it  a  simple 
matter  for  the  exhibitor  to  obtain  this  information. 

The  routine  of  the  program  followed  by  the  average 
picture  theater  is  as  follows : 

(1)  Announcements.     After  the  lights  in  the  audi- 


116          MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

torium  have  been  dimmed,  the  stereopticon 
throws  a  few  advertising  or  house  announce- 
ments on  the  screen.  These  may  be  cards  from 
the  local  merchants  telling  of  a  special  line  of 
goods  or  a  sale,  or  they  may  be  slides  telling 
of  certain  features  of  the  house  management 
such  as  "Pictures  Changed  Daily,"  "Weekly 
Review  Every  Tuesday  Night,"  or  "Special 
Educational  Release  Tomorrow." 

(2)  Motion  Picture.     The  first  film  follows  the  an- 
nouncement immediately  the  last  slide  dissolv- 
ing into  the  "leader"  of  the  film,  if  the  theater 
is  equipped  for  this  arrangement.     In  no  case 
should  a  long  intervening  glare  of  light  precede 
the   picture    nor   should    any   perceptible    time 
elapse  between  the  slides  and  the  film.     At  the 
end  of  the  film  it  is  preferable  to  dissolve  the 
picture  so  that  it  gradually  fades  away,  instead 
of   having   it  come  to  an   abrupt  end   with   a 
shower  of  dancing  spots  and  a  glare  of  light. 

Should  the  film  break  or  some  other  acci- 
dent occur  in  the  operating  booth,  a  slide  should 
be  immediately  projected,  notifying  the  audi- 
ence that  the  show  will  be  continued  in  a  few 
moments.  Announcement  slides  such  as  "Just 
a  Moment,  Please,"  or  "Film  Will  Start  in  a 
Moment,"  can  be  obtained  at  any  exchange. 

While  the  film  is  being  shown,  the  pianist 
or  orchestra  should  play  music  that  is  appro- 
priate to  the  picture,  and  not  a  miscellaneous 
medley  of  airs  that  may  occur  to  the  player  as 
the  show  progresses,  as  it  is  possible  to  dispel 
the  illusion  entirely  by  the  carelessness  of  the 
musician.  Musical  scores  for  nearly  all  of  the 
films  may  be  obtained  from  the  exchanges. 

(3)  Song.    At  the  end  of  the  film  the  singer  enters, 
and  the  first  song  slide  is  projected  upon  the 
curtain,  or  in  case  the  song  slides  are  not  used, 
the  operator  trains  his  spot  light  upon  the  singer 
at  the  moment  of  entrance,  being  careful   to 
follow  every  movement  with  the  light.     When 
two  operators  are  employed,  as  is  usually  the 
case  when  song  slides  are  used,  the  first  re- 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

winds  the  film,  and  the  second  operates  the 
stereopticon.  With  one  operator,  the  rewind- 
ing must  be  postponed  until  the  intermission. 
The  employment  of  two  operators  is  a  real 
economy  on  busy  nights  and  holidays,  or  in 
shopping  district  shows,  as  with  two  men  the 
intermissions  are  shorter  and  more  shows  may 
be  given  in  the  working  hours. 

For  the  best  effect,  the  first  lantern  slide 
should  dissolve  into  the  tail  piece  of  the  film, 
without  intermission,  an  effect  that  is  only  pos- 
sible by  the  use  of  two  operators.  At  the  end 
of  the  song,  the  motion  picture  machine  oper- 
ator projects  the  "leader"  of  the  film  into  the 
last  song  slide  which  is  gradually  dissolved  out 
of  the  field  before  the  end  of  the  leader. 

When  there  is  only  one  operator,  and  when 
a  spotlight  is  used  in  place  of  the  slides,  the 
singer  should  be  kept  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
one  position  so  that  the  operator  will  not  have 
to  be  continually  on  the  alert  with  the  spot. 

(4)  Second  Film.     Follows  in  the  same  way  that 
the  first  follows  the  announcement  slides. 

(5)  Second  Song. 

(6)  Intermission  or  Third  Reel.    At  the  end  of  the 
second  song,  or  the  third  reel,  if  one  is  used, 
the  stereopticon  operator  projects  an  announce- 
ment  slide,   "End   of   the   Show.   Those   Who 
Have  Not  Seen  the  Entire  Performance  May 
Keep  Their  Seats."    The  auditorium  lights  are 
now  turned  on  to  full  brilliancy  and  prepara- 
tions are  made  for  the  next  show. 

ADVERTISING  THE  SHOW. 

In  small  towns  it  is  advisable  to  carry  a  small  ad- 
vertisement in  the  local  paper,  the  usual  cost  of  $1  per 
week  for  this  service  is  usually  well  spent,  for  in  these 
towns  the  subscribers  read  everything  in  the  paper,  in- 
cluding the  advertisements  and  the  ad  is  a  constant  re- 
minder. Owing  to  the  area  covered  by  the  large  cities, 
to  the  number  of  shows  that  cater  to  a  local  trade,  and 
to  the  cost  of  even  a  small  card,  it  is  seldom  advisable 
to  advertise  in  the  daily  papers  of  a  town  having  more 
than  50.000  inhabitants,  except  when  the  show  is  located 


118  MOTION   PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 

in  the  principal  shopping  districts  or  business  center. 
When  newspaper  advertising  is  carried,  the  ads  should 
be  changed  frequently  to  keep  up  the  interest,  and  if 
possible  should  give  all  of  the  coming  features  of  spe- 
cial importance. 

Hand  bills  announcing  some  special  feature  film  are 
sometimes  of  value  in  the  residence  districts  of  large 
cities  or  for  general  distribution  in  small  towns.  Unless 
these  bills  offer  some  special  treat  in  the  way  of  a  spe- 
cial program  they  should  not  be  used.  The  expense  of 
covering  a  territory  by  hand  bills  is  generally  somewhat 
greater  than  covering  it  through  the  local  paper,  and 
unless  care  is  taken  in  the  distribution,  the  impression 
given  by  the  bills  is  not  likely  to  be  favorable. 

Billboard  service  is  sometimes  used  on  special  occa- 
sions, announcing  a  multiple  reel  feature  film  for  a 
centrally  located  theater  of  more  than  local  reputation. 
The  expense  of  this  system  is  considerably  greater  than 
any  of  those  previously  mentioned,  and  should  not  be 
undertaken  by  a  small  show.  The  posters  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  exchange  or  from  the  producers  of  the 
film  for  a  nominal  price. 

One  of  the  advantages  of  advertising  in  a  news- 
paper lies  in  the  fact  that  a  reading  notice  may  be 
obtained  occasionally  in  the  columns  explaining  the  won- 
ders of  some  new  production.  If  carefully  written  in 
an  entertaining  way  from  the  prospectus  of  the  manu- 
facturer, the  write  ups  often  prove  a  godsend  to  the 
exhibitor.  An  occasional  biblical  film,  endorsed  by  the 
local  clergy  often  brings  patrons  that  would  never  have 
patronized  the  theater  under  other  conditions.  When 
these  people  discover  that  the  show  is  clean  and  that 
it  is  attended  by  a  good  class  of  people  they  usually 
continue  their  visits. 

THE    TICKET    OFFICE. 

The  regular  motion  picture  tickets  are  supplied  in 
rolls  and  may  be  obtained  from  the  film  exchange  at  a 
reasonable  price.  The  cashier  tears  off  a  ticket  for  each 
patron,  who  in  turn  presents  it  to  the  ticket  taker  in  the 
theater.  The  tickets  are  a  check  on  the  paid  admissions, 
and  if  carefully  used  will  prevent  many  leaks  in  the 
financial  end  of  the  show. 

The  number  of  tickets  in  the  ticket  taker's  posses- 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING          H9 

sion  represents  the  amount  of  money  received  by  the 
cashier,  and  should  therefore  be  equal  to  the  number  of 
the  end  ticket  on  the  roll  before  the  show,  subtracted 
from  the  number  on  the  end  ticket  after  the  show.  There 
are  devices  now  on  the  market  that  in  a  way  resemble  a 
cash  register,  that  afford  an  absolute  check  on  the  num- 
ber of  tickets  sold.  These  are  metallic  boxes  contain- 
ing one  roll  of  tickets  that  can  only  be  unlocked  by  the 
manager's  key.  The  ticket  is  issued  to  the  patron  by 
pressing  a  lever  that  cuts  off  the  ticket  and  at  the  same 
time  registers  the  transaction  on  a  counting  mechanism 
on  the  inside  of  the  machine. 

If  the  color  of  the  tickets  is  changed  day  by  day, 
it  is  almost  impossible  for  anyone  to  enter  without  pay- 
ing, or  by  discarded  tickets  from  the  day  before.  To 
prevent  the  tickets  from  being  used  a  second  time  a 
"ticket  chopper"  may  be  used  that  mutilates  the  ticket  in 
such  a  way  that  it  is  impossible  to  present  it  without 
detection.  As  these  machines  are  quite  expensive,  their 
use  is  usually  confined  to  the  larger  shows.  In  any  case 
the  manager  should  burn  the  tickets  taken  from  the 
ticket  box  at  the  end  of  the  day's  performance,  to  pre- 
vent a  second  admission  on  one  ticket.  As  a  further 
check  on  the  ticket  system,  the  manager  should  occasion- 
ally count  the  house  during  one  or  more  performances 
and  compare  the  results  with  the  ticket  numbers  in  the 
ticket  taker's  box. 

PROFITABLE   SIDE  LINES. 

In  many  cases  the  theater  owner  can  increase  his 
profit  over  the  amount  received  from  the  admissions  by 
carrying  local  advertising  for  groceries,  drug  stores,  or 
other  business  establishments  in  the  neighborhood. 
While  the  patrons  will  not  object  to  a  limited  amount  of 
this  sort  of  display,  care  should  be  taken  so  that  the 
advertising  idea  does  not  become  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent features  of  the  show.  It  is  best  to  limit  this  display 
to  a  short  time  during  the  intermission  only,  and  not 
after  the  theater  is  darkened  for  the  show. 

When  advertising  slides  are  projected  on  the  screen 
just  before  the  first  film,  particular  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  take  too  much  time,  as  the  audience  is  naturally 
anxious  for  the  show  to  begin  and  does  not  take  kindly 
to  any  interruption  of  this  nature.  Three  slides  should 


120  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

be  the  limit  in  any  case,  and  they  should  be  of  an  inter- 
esting and  artistic  nature,  never  of  the  home-made  hand- 
written type.  The  cost  of  the  slides  should  be  met  by 
the  advertisers.  In  neighborhood  shows,  the  slides 
should  be  changed  at  frequent  intervals  to  prevent  their 
"going  stale." 

When  a  drop  curtain  is  used  to  cover  the  screen 
during  the  intermission,  it  may  be  used  to  display  a 
number  of  advertisements.  The  same  method  can  be 
applied  to  the  street  scenes  used  in  the  vaudeville  show, 
if  one  is  contemplated  in  connection  with  the  pictures. 
By  the  combination  of  the  drop  and  the  street  scenes  it 
is  possible  to  accommodate  a  number  of  advertising 
clients,  and  this  should  bring  a  considerable  revenue  to 
the  show.  Like  the  slides,  the  drop  advertising  should 
be  changed  occasionally,  so  that  the  interest  will  be 
maintained. 

Program  advertising  is  possible  with  the  majority 
of  theaters  seating  five  hundred  or  over,  and  this  is 
practically  the  best  form  of  display,  since  the  program 
is  useful  to  the  patrons  of  the  show  and  for  the  reason 
that  many  of  the  pamphlets  are  carried  home  for  future 
consultation.  In  this  way  the  theater  can  obtain  its 
program  free  and  usually  with  a  fair  margin  of  profit 
over  the  printer's  bill. 

In  addition  to  the  advertising,  many  theaters  make 
a  practice  of  selling  candy  during  the  intermission.  In 
the  majority  of  cases  this  proves  a  nuisance  to  the  audi- 
ence, unless  the  management  is  fortunate  enough  to 
secure  a  vendor  or  "candy  butcher"  that  can  make  his 
sales  patter  entertaining.  After  visiting  many  of  the 
principal  theaters  in  Chicago,  the  writer  can  remember 
only  two  instances  in  which  the  vendor  proved  anything 
but  a  nuisance  to  the  audience.  Either  stay  in  the  motion 
picture  business  or  go  into  the  candy  business ;  don't 
mix  them. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   PROJECTOR. 

While  the  elementary  details  of  the  projector 
and  its  development  were  given  in  Chapter  I, 
it  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  enlarge  on 
the  description  previously  given  so  that  the  reader  may 
become  familiar  with  the  actual  operation  and  mainten- 
ance of  the  machine,  and  the  theory  of  its  optical  system. 
The  constantly  increasing  list  of  projectors  being  placed 
on  the  market  prohibits  an  extended  discussion  of  the 
constructional  details  and  adjustment  of  every  machine, 
within  the  limits  of  this  book,  but  as  they  are  all  built 
on  the  same  basic  principles  we  will  confine  ourselves  to 
those  parts  that  all  machines  have  in  common,  leaving 
the  solution  of  the  minor  variations  to  the  ingenuity  of 
the  reader. 

THE  OPTICAL  SYSTEM. 

As  shown  in  Chapter  I,  the  optical  system  consists 
of  two  principal  groups  of  lenses  known  as  the  objective 
and  the  condenser.  It  is  the  function  of  the  condenser 
lens  to  gather  as  much  light  as  possible  from  the  lamp 
and  to  concentrate  it  upon  the  small  area  occupied  by  a 
film  picture,  thus  increasing  the  intensity  of  illumina- 
tion on  the  film.  As  the  condenser  lens  receives  light 
from  the  lamp  over  its  entire  surface,  and  has  many 
times  the  area  of  the  film  image,  it  is  evident  that  the 
original  surface  illumination  will  be  increased  on  the 
film  in  direct  proportion  to  the  reduction  of  area,  since 
the  same  number  of  rays  are  crowded  into  a  smaller 
space. 

After  passing  through  the  film,  where  it  is  broken 
up  by  the  dark  and  light  portions  of  the  film  image,  the 
light  passes  through  the  objective  lens  in  the  form  of  a 
double  cone,  whose  apex  is  near  the  center  line  of  the 
objective.  From  the  objective  the  shadow  of  the  film 
is  projected  direct  to  the  screen.  As  the  rays  of  light 


122          MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 

cross  near  the  center  of  the  objective,  the  image  re- 
ceived by  the  objective  is  inverted  on  the  screen,  so  that 
the  film  image  must  be  turned  upside  down  if  the  image 
on  the  screen  is  to  appear  in  its  correct  position.  Since 
the  cone  of  light  from  the  objective  to  the  screen  is 
much  longer  than  the  cone  from  the  film  to  the  objective 
the  image  is  much  enlarged  on  the  screen,  the  angle  of 
both  cones  being  equal.  The  film  lies  between  the  con- 
denser and  objective  at  a  distance  that  is  fixed  by  the 
curvature  of  the  lens  surfaces. 

THE  CONDENSER  LENS. 

The  condenser  is  built  up  of  two  separate  lenses,  of 
the  "piano  convex"  type,  the  convex  surfaces  of  which 
are  brought  face  to  face  with  one  another  in  the  inside 
of  the  container,  leaving  the  straight  faces  directed  to- 
ward the  lamp  and  objective  respectively.  The  lens 
next  to  the  lamp  is  called  the  "back"  condenser  and  the 
lens  next  to  the  film  the  "front  condenser."  The  back 
condenser  receives  the  light  rays  from  the  lamp  and 
straightens  them  into  a  band  of  horizontal  and  parallel 
rays.  Entering  the  front  condenser  as  parallel  rays,  they 
are  bent  into  a  cone  of  light  whose  apex  lies  on  the  center 
line  of  the  lens  (optical  center),  and  at  the  focal  center 
of  the  objective.  The  exact  distance  of  the  apex  of  the 
rays  on  the  optical  center  depends  on  the  curvature  given 
to  the  lens. 

For  a  sharp  picture,  the  film  must  occupy  a  fixed 
position  in  regard  to  the  condenser  and  objective  lens,  as 
before  stated,  the  distance  between  the  film  and  the  apex, 
or  point  of  convergence  of  the  light  rays,  being  known 
as  the  "focal  length"  of  the  lens.  This  distance  is  se- 
lected in  the  motion  picture  projector  so  that  the  film 
is  much  closer  to  the  objective  than  to  the  condenser. 
The  focal  length  of  the  back  condenser  lens  determines 
the  distance  of  the  lamp  from  the  lens,  the  focal  length 
ranging  from  4l/2  inches  to  8  inches  in  the  majority  of 
cases.  Back  condensers  of  short  focal  length  necessarily 
bring  the  lamp  very  close  to  the  glass  and  increase  the 
danger  of  breaking  the  glass  through  the  heat  of  the 
arc,  but  give  the  advantage  of  increasing  the  brilliancy 
of  the  image  on  the  screen.  Since  a  short  focus  con- 
denser lens  is  thicker  than  one  of  long  focus,  the  chances 
of  breakage  are  still  further  increased. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING          123 

With  a  long  focus  back  condenser,  the  distance  from 
the  lamp  is  greater,  and  the  glass  thinner,  but  has  the  dis- 
advantage of  reducing  the  illumination  on  the  screen, 
since  less  light  falls  on  the  surface  of  the  lens.  In  prac- 
tice a  compromise  is  made  between  the  intensity  of  the 
illumination  and  the  danger  of  heat  breakage,  which 
brings  the  focal  length  from  ^l/2  to  8  inches  (average 
6  inches).  When  a  very  short  focal  length  is  used,  it 
is  much  more  difficult  to  keep  the  lamp  in  focus,  as  a 
very  small  variation  in  the  lamp  distance  makes  a  great 
difference  on  the  screen,  much  greater  than  with  a  lens 
of  longer  focal  length. 

As  the  objective  lens  and  film  is  at  a  greater  distance 
from  the  condenser  than  the  lamp,  the  front  condenser 
is  of  a  longer  focal  length  than  the  back  condenser,  and 
is,  therefore,  much  thinner  in  section.  Its  focal  length 
should  be  such  that  the  apex  of  the  rays  comes  exactly  at 
the  focal  center  of  the  objective  lens.  The  difference 
between  the  focal  length  of  the  two  condenser  lenses 
should  not  be  made  too  great,  as  this  makes  the  lamp  ad- 
adjustment  difficult.  The  usual  focal  length  of  the 
front  condenser  is  14  inches  or  less,  this  distance  being 
equal  to  the  focal  length  of  the  objective  lens  plus  the 
distance  from  the  film  to  the  center  of  the  condenser 
case. 

Another  factor  regulating  the  size  of  the  condenser 
lenses  is-the  diameter  of  the  light  cone  at  the  point  where 
it  passes  through  the  aperture  of  the  film  gate,  it  being 
evident  that  the  diameter  of  the  light  cone  at  the  aper- 
ture should  be  at  least  equal  to  the  length  of  a  diagonal 
drawn  from  one  corner  of  the  aperture  to  the  other.  As 
this  opening  is  nearly  equal  to  the  size  of  the  film  pic- 
ture (24x1  inch),  the  diagonal  is  approximately  equal  to 
1^4  inches,  which  should  also  be  the  minimum  diameter 
of  the  light  cone  at  this  point,  if  the  light  is  to  entirely 
cover  the  picture.  With  the  focal  length  of  the  con- 
densers determined  on,  the  cone  diameter  regulates  the 
diameter  of  the  lens,  as  the  lens  must  be  at  least  equal 
to  the  diameter  of  the  cone  at  the  condenser. 

The  diameter  of  the  condenser  lens  can  be  found 
by  a  simple  arithmetical  proportion  between  the  aper- 
ture diagonal,  the  focal  length  of  the  objective  lens,  and 


124  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

the  distance  between  the  focal  center  of  the  objective  to 
the  face  of  the  front  condenser. 

By  letting  A  represent  the  focal  length  of  the  ob- 
jective B=1^4  inches  (length  of  aperture  diagonal,  and 
C=  the  distance  from  the  focal  of  the  objective  to  the 

BC         1.25C 

front  face  of  the  front  condenser,  we  have = 

A  A 

=  diameter  of  condenser. 

In  a  machine  having  an  objective  with  a  focal  length 
of  4  inches,  and  C  =  12  inches,  we  apply  the  formula 
as  follows : 

1.25x12 

=  3.75  inches,  the  minimum  diameter  of  the 

4 

condenser  lens.  The  next  larger  commercial  size  should 
be  chosen,  when  the  result  does  not  come  out  in  even 
figures.  While  the  aperture  was  given  equal  to  the  size 
of  the  film  picture  to  simplify  the  calculations,  it  is 
usually  1-16  inch  smaller  in  each  of  the  dimensions,  mak- 
ing the  actual  opening  11-16  x  15-16  inch.  This  is  an 
error  on  the  safe  side  in  making  the  calculations. 

When  the  condenser  lens  is  too  small  in  diameter  and 
does  not  completely  cover  the  picture,  there  will  be  dark 
corners  on  the  screen.  This  may  be  remedied  by  moving 
the  motion  head,  containing  the  objective  and  film,  closer 
to  the  condenser,  when  it  is  impossible  to  secure  suita- 
ble condensers.  This  has  the  fault  of  throwing  the  apex 
of  the  light  cone  ahead  of  the  focal  center  of  the  ob- 
jective. 

THE  OBJECTIVE  LENS. 

The  objective  lens  generally  consists  of  four  indi- 
vidual lenses  assembled  in  a  brass  tube,  two  of  the  glasses 
being  in  front  of  the  tube  and  two  at  the  back,  the  two 
containing  spaces  at  the  ends  of  the  tube  being  known 
as  the  "cells."  The  two  front  glasses  are  cemented  to- 
gether with  some  transparent  cement  such  as  Canada 
balsam,  while  the  rear  assembly  is  held  apart  by  means 
of  a  brass  spacing  ring.  The  lens  is  not  reversible  and 
should  be  arranged  so  that  the  spaced  glasses  are  always 
next  to  the  film.  The  accuracy  of  this  lens  is  of  the 
greatest  importance,  even  more  important  than  the  accur- 
acy of  the  condensers,  as  there  can  be  no  further  correc- 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          125 

tions  to  the  light  after  passing  the  front  cell,  and  as  there 
is  no  intervening  film  to  modify  imperfections  in  the 
grinding  or  glass,  as  in  the  case  of  the  condensers 

A  correctly  designed  lens  is  free  from  the  distor- 
tions that  are  always  in  evidence  in  the  cheaper  grades 
of  optical  apparatus,  such  as  chromatic  dispersion,  astig- 
matism, and  the  curvature  or  distortion  of  the  straight 
lines  in  the  picture.  The  first  lens  error  mentioned  above, 
chromatic  dispersion,  results  in  the  light  beams  being 
broken  up  into  their  elementary  components  of  red,  yel- 
low, green  and  blue  rays,  these  colors  appearing  at  the 
edges  of  the  objects  on  the  screen  as  a  fringe,  on  sharp 
edges  or  between  strongly  contrasting  parts  of  the  image 
this  distortion  appears  like  a  rainbow,  such  as  may  be 
seen  by  looking  through  a  glass  prism.  A  lens  that  is 
constructed  so  that  the  field  is  free  from  color  is  known 
as  an  achromatic  lens,  a  type  that  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  clean  projection. 

Usually  this  correction  is  accomplished  by  building 
the  lens  up  in  two  or  more  parts,  each  alternate  lens 
being  of  a  different  grade  of  glass,  having  a  different  re- 
fracting power.  The  two  glasses  most  commonly  used 
for  this  purpose  are  known  as  "Crown"  and  "Flint" 
glass,  the  first  material  mentioned  corrects  the  chromatic 
dispersion  of  the  other  as  the  light  passes  through  the 
lens.  This  accounts  for  the  two  glasses  in  each  end  of 
the  tube,  each  of  the  two  groups  being  independently 
achromatic. 

An  anastigmat  lens  is  built  to  overcome  the  error 
known  as  "astigmatism,"  a  condition  in  which  all  of  the 
rays  are  not  brought  into  focus  at  a  common  point.  When 
astigmatism  exists,  all  of  the  rays  do  not  cross  the  opti- 
cal center  of  the  lens  at  a  common  point  (at  the  apex 
of  the  light  cone),  and,  as  a  result,  a  ray  passing  from 
the  lens  does  not  fall  on  its  proper  place  on  the  screen. 
A  ray  from  an  anastigmat  lens  (corrected)  is  truly  cir- 
cular at  all  points  in  its  length,  while  an  astigmat  lens 
(not  corrected)  gives  a  cross  section  varying  from  a 
vertical  ellipse  to  a  horizontal  ellipse,  passing  through  an 
intermediate  form  similar  to  a  cross.  The  correction  for 
astigmatism  is  made  in  the  curvature  of  the  lens  face  or 
by  introducing  supplementary  lenses  having  different 
face  curves. 


126  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 

A  rectilinear  lens  avoids  what  is  known  as  "barrel" 
or  "pin-cushion"  distortion,  that  is,  it  projects  a  straight 
line  on  the  film  as  a  straight  line  on  the  screen.  If  the 
lens  is  not  truly  rectilinear,  the  edges  of  the  film  aperture 
will  be  curved,  either  out  or  in,  as  will  be  all  of  the 
straight  lines  in  the  picture,  the  curvature  increasing  as 
the  edge  of  the  picture  is  approached.  This  distortion  is 
at  a  maximum  with  a  single  lens  having  a  diaphragm  or 
reduced  opening,  such  as  the  gate  aperture.  If  a  single 
lens  were  used  with  the  aperture  between  the  source  of 
light  and  the  lens,  "barrel  distortion"  would  result,  that 
is,  the  edges  of  the  picture  would  curve  outwardly  giv- 
ing it  the  appearance  of  a  barrel.  Placing  the  restricted 
opening  behind  the  single  lens  would  make  all  of  the 
straight  lines  bow  in,  an  outline  similar  to  that  of  a 
stuffed  pin-cushion. 

By  providing  a  double  lens,  in  which  one  lens  recti- 
fies the  distortion  of  the  other,  we  can  obtain  a  straight 
line  on  the  screen,  this  combination  of  two  lenses  at 
opposite  ends  of  the  lens  tube  being  known  as  a  "recti- 
linear lens." 

For  a  perfect  projection  the  lens  must  overcome  all 
of  the  difficulties  mentioned  that  are  inseparable  with  a 
single  group  of  lenses,  as  shown  at  either  the  front  or 
back.  With  the  arc  out  of  its  proper  position  the  most 
perfectly  ground  lens  is  incapable  of  avoiding  these  dis- 
tortions. 

When  the  film  picture  is  not  brought  central  with 
the  optical  center  of  the  lens,  the  corners  of  the  image 
are  usually  dark  on  the  screen,  as  the  picture  or  a  por- 
tion of  it  is  out  of  the  included  angle  of  the  light  cone. 
When  the  lens  is  shifted  to  correct  this  condition,  the 
sides  of  the  image  become  inclined  with  one  another 
giving  what  is  known  as  a  "keystone"  picture,  even  with 
a  rectilinear  lens.  To  avoid  the  keystone  picture,  the 
angle  of  the  lens  must  be  sufficiently  great  to  bring  in  the 
edges. 

LENS  CALCULATIONS. 

Because  of  the  great  difference  in  the  size  of  the- 
aters it  is  impossible  for  the  makers  of  the  projector  to 
furnish  a  single  objective  lens  that  will  fill  all  require- 
ments, so  that  it  is  necessary  that  the  lens  be  calculated 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          127 

in  each  case  to  obtain  the  specified  results.  The  dis- 
tance from  the  lens  to  the  screen,  re-called  the  "throw," 
the  size  of  the  required  picture,  and  the  focal  length  of 
the  objective  are  the  factors  involved  in  fitting  the  lens 
to  any  given  theater. 

The  length  of  throw  is  governed  by  the  location  of 
the  projector  in  regard  to  the  screen,  and  is  measured  in 
feet  along  the  line  of  the  optical  center  of  the  lens.  If 
the  projector  is  raised  for  any  considerable  distance  above 
the  center  line  of  the  screen  it  will  not  be  sufficient  to 
measure  the  distance  along  the  floor  horizontally  as  the 
slanting  center  line  of  the  lens  will  be  greater  than  the 
horizontal  distance.  This  error  will  not  be  excessive, 
however,  if  the  vertical  distance  from  the  center  of  the 
screen  to  the  center  of  the  lens  does  not  increase  at  a 
rate  greater  than  one  foot  for  every  ten  feet  of  throw. 

With  a  given  focal  length  of  lens,  the  size  of  the 
picture  on  the  screen  increases  with  every  additional  foot 
of  throw,  since  the  distance  across  the  angle  of  the  light 
cone  is  greater  at  an  increased  distance  from  the  lens. 
With  a  given  throw,  the  size  of  the  picture  decreases 
— with  an  increase  in  the  focal  length  of  the  lens,  and 
vice  versa.  The  size  of  the  picture  is  generally  deter- 
mined by  either  the  width  of  the  theater  or  by  the  height 
of  the  ceiling,  or  in  some  cases  by  the  amount  of  light 
that  can  be  generated  in  the  lamp.  For  every  increase 
in  the  area  of  the  screen  image  there  must  be  an  accom- 
panying increase  in  the  amount  of  light  generated,  if 
the  illumination  of  the  screen  is  to  be  equal  in  both  cases. 
Doubling  the  area  of  the  screen  requires  double  the  light 
with  equal  screen  brilliancy. 

In  estimating  the  size  of  the  screen  it  should  not 
be  forgotten  that  the  proportion  between  the  length 
and  height  of  the  screen  must  be  the  same  as  the  pro- 
portions of  the  film  picture,  and  that  it  is  impossible  for 
the  lens  to  change  this  relation.  As  the  film  picture  is 
3^x1  inch,  the  height  of  the  picture  is  three  quarters  of 
the  length,  a  proportion  that  must  be  followed  on  the 
screen.  If  the  image  on  the  screen  is  to  be  12  feet  long, 
the  height  will  be  *4  of  twelve,  or  9  feet,  a  figure  that 
cannot  be  changed  unless  part  of  the  picture  is  trimmed 
from  the  screen.  The  fact  that  the  aperture  plate  is  1-16 


128  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

inch  less  than  the  film  picture  in  each  dimension  does  not 
change  the  proportions  of  the  picture  to  any  great  extent. 

When  stereopticon  slides  are  to  be  used  the  pro- 
portions of  the  picture  are  changed,  as  the  stereopticon 
slide  is  more  nearly  square,  necessitating  a  higher  screen 
than  that  used  with  the  motion  pictures.  The  size  of  a 
standard  slide  is  usually  taken  as  being  2^x3  inches, 
although  many  slides  are  larger  than  this.  The  outside 
dimension  of  the  American  standard  slide  is  3^x4,  and 
the  foreign  slide  is  3}4x3}4  inches,  the  actual  picture 
space  being  practically  the  same  in  both  cases,  because 
of  the  binding  or  blank  margin. 

The  actual  screen  should  be  larger  than  the  picture 
allowing  for  a  suitable  margin  all  the  way  around,  and 
the  margin  should  be  painted  black  so  that  any  over- 
hanging parts  of  the  screen  image  will  be  invisible  to  the 
audience.  When  the  screen  is  exactly  the  size  of  the  pic- 
ture, an  unevenly  centered  slide  or  film  will  run  over  the 
edge  of  the  screen  giving  a  very  untidy  appearance,  and 
creating  a  bad  impression  in  the  minds  of  the  audience. 

As  explained  in  a  preceding  paragraph,  the  focal 
length  of  the  objective  lens  is  approximately  the  dis- 
tance from  the  film  to  the  focal  center  of  the  lens,  a 
point  near  the  center  of  the  lens  tube,  or  midway  be- 
tween the  two  glasses.  This  measurement  is  accurate 
enough  for  the  calculations  made  in  determining  the  size 
of  lens.  The  real  focal  length  is  just  a  little  shorter  than 
this.  With  a  given  lens  the  focal  distance  may  be  meas- 
ured by  turning  the  end  of  the  lens  toward  the  light  of 
a  window  and  then  placing  a  white  card  or  piece  of  paper 
near  the  back  of  the  lens.  By  moving  the  paper  back 
and  forth  a  point  will  be  found  at  which  the  lines  of  the 
window  frame  appear  sharp  and  distinct.  With  the  paper 
in  the  latter  position  measure  the  distance  from  the  cen- 
ter of  the  lens  tube  to  the  paper ;  this  is  the  focal  length 
of  the  lens. 

The  relations  between  the  focal  length,  throw,  and 
picture  size,  are  shown  by  the  accompanying  table  from 
which  the  data  may  be  readily  obtained  without  calcu- 
lation. The  equivalent  focal  length  of  the  lens  is  given 
in  the  first  left  hand  column.  Arranged  horizontally 
across  the  top  of  the  table  are  the  throws  ranging  from 
15  to  100  feet.  In  the  body  of  the  table  to  the  right  of 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 


129 


the  focal  length  column  and  below  the  line  of  throws  are 
the  picture  sizes  that  correspond  to  the  values  given  by 
the  two  columns.  It  will  be  noted  that  there  are  two 
different  figures  given  for  the  screen  size  opposite  each 
value  of  the  focal  length,  that  give  the  length  and  height 

TABLE    SHOWING    SIZE    OF    SCREEN    IMAGE    WHEN    MOTION 
PICTURES    ARE    PROJECTED. 

Size  of  mat  opening  IJ  by  }§  inch. 


EoolY.focos 

Inches 

18 
ft. 

20 
ft. 

25 

ft 

30 
ft. 

35 

ft. 

40 

ft. 

tt. 

50 
ft. 

60 
ft. 

70 
ft. 

80 

ft. 

90 

ft. 

100 

It. 

2/8 

4.8 

6.4 

8.0 

•8.8 

11.3 

12.9 

14.5 

16.1 

2H 

6.5 

8.7 
5.4 

11.0 
8.8 

13.2 
8.2 

15.4 
8.6 

17.6 
10.8 

19.8 

12.3 

22.0 
13.7 

16.4 

74 

8.3 

11.2 

13.1 

14.8 

16,8 

18.7 

22.4 

3 

4.5 

5.7 

6.8 

8.0 

8.1 

10.3 

11.4 

13.7 

16.0 

6.2 

7.7 

8.3 

10.8 

12.4 

14.0 

15.6 

18.7 

21.8 

m 

4.9 

6.8 

6.8 

7.8 

JB.8 

8.8 

11.7 

13.7 

15.7 

6.6 

8.0 

9.3 

10.6 

12.0 

13.3 

16.0 

18.7 

21.4 

4 

4.2 

5.1 

6.0 

6.8 

7.7 

8.5 

10.3 

12.0 

13.7 

15.4 

5.8 

7.0 

8.1 

8.3 

10.5 

11.6 

14.0 

18.3 

18.7 

21.0 

4'/i 

4.5 

5.3 

6.2 

6.8 

7.7 

8.1 

10.6 

12.2 

13.7 

15.4 

6.2 

7.2 

8.4 

8.3 

10.5 

12.4 

14.6 

16.6 

18.7 

21.0 

5 

4.8 

6.4 

6.1 

6.8 

8.2 

8.6 

10.8 

12.3 

19.1* 

6.5 

7.4 

M 

4.3 

11.2 

13.0 

14.8 

18.8 

18.7 

1* 

4.3 

4.8 

5.6 

6.2 

7.4 

8.7 

8.8 

11.2 

12.4 

5.9 

6.7 

7.6 

8.4 

10.2 

11.8 

13.6 

15.3 

17.9 

6 

4.5 

5.1 

5.7 

6.8 

8.0 

8.1 

10.3 

11.4 

8.2 

7.0 

77 

6.3 

10.9 

12.4 

14.0 

15.6 

in 

4.7 

5.2 

6.3 

7.3 

8.4 

8.6 

10.8 

64 

7.1 

8.6 

10.0 

11.4 

13.0 

14.5 

7 

44 

4.8 

6.8 

6.8 

7.8 

8.8 

8.8 

6.0 

6.6 

8.0 

9.3 

10.6 

12.0 

13.3 

j.^ 

4.5 

5.4 

6.4 

7.3 

8.2 

8.1 

6.2 

7,4 

8.7 

10.0 

11.2 

12.3 

8 

6.1 

6.0 

6.8 

7.7 

8.5 

7.0 

81 

9!3 

10.5 

11.6 

Fig.  45. 

of  the  projection.  The  upper  figure  of  the  pair  gives 
the  height  of  the  picture  and  the  lower  gives  the  length. 
Thus  the  picture  size  given  by  a  lens  having  a  focal 
length  of  four  inches  gives  a  picture  6  feet  in  height 
by  8.1  feet  in  length,  with  a  throw  of  35  feet.  Combina- 
tions giving  a  picture  length  less  than  7.0  feet  are  omitted 


130  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 

from  the  table  as  a  picture  having  length  less  than  this 
is  not  suitable  for  public  exhibition,  especially  with  the 
longer  throws.  By  examining  the  table  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  picture  size  diminishes  with  an  increase  of  focal 
length  with  a  constant  length  of  throw.  With  a  given 
focal  length,  the  picture  size  increases  with  an  increase 
of  throw. 

When  the  size  of  the  picture  and  the  length  of  the 
throw  has  been  determined,  the  operator  can  find  the 
necessary  focal  length  of  the  lens  by  starting  at  the  top 
of  the  table  and  following  down  the  column  under  the 
head  giving  the  throw,  until  a  picture  size  is  found  that 
approximates  the  desired  size. 

Example. — In  a  certain  theater  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  throw  of  70  feet.  The  picture  is  to  be,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  8  feet  in  height  by  12  feet  in  length.  Find 
the  focal  length  of  the  lens  necessary  for  this  condition. 

Solution. — Under  the  heading  "70  feet,"  follow  down 
the  column  until  the  nearest  picture  size  is  found,  which 
is  in  this  case  8.7x11.9  feet.  From  the  figure  giving  the 
height  of  the  picture  (8.7  feet)  follow  along  this  line 
to  the  left  to  the  equivalent  focus  column  where  it  will 
be  found  that  a  lens  having  a  focal  length  of  Sl/2  inches 
will  be  required. 

The  table  is  reversible,  that  is,  it  may  be  used  to 
find  the  picture  size  with  a  given  lens  and  throw,  or  it 
may  be  used  to  find  the  throw  necessary  to  obtain  a  pic- 
ture of  the  given  size  with  a  given  lens.  Both  of  these 
calculations  will  prove  of  use  to  the  operator  of  a  trav- 
eling show  or  lecture  tour  who  is  continually  meeting 
with  widely  varying  lengths  of  throw,  and  who  is  seldom 
blessed  with  more  than  one  objective. 

Example. — A  projector  has  a  lens  of  4^4  inch  focal 
length,  and  is  installed  so  that  the  throw  to  the  screen 
is  50  feet.  Find  the  size  of  the  picture. 

Solution. — From  the  figure  4^  in  the  left  hand  col- 
umn follow  across  the  page  to  the  right  until  in  the  col- 
umn marked  "50  feet."  The  picture  size  will  be  found 
given  as  7.7x10.5  at  the  intersection  of  the  horizontal 
lines  and  the  column. 

When  the  length  of  throw  is  required  that  will  give 
a  certain  size  of  picture  with  a  given  focal  length,  start 
with  the  focal  length  in  the  left  hand  column  and  follow 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 


131 


to  the  right  until  the  required  picture  size  is  found. 
From  the  latter  figure  trace  up  the  column  to  the  figure 
given  in  the  heading.  This  will  be  the  required  throw. 

SIZE  OF  LANTERN   SLIDE  SCREEN  IMAGES. 
Size   of   Mat    Opening   2j£x3   inches. 


Equiv.  Focal 
Length    Ins. 

Length  of  Throw  (Feet) 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

5 

8.0 

10.8 

13.5 

16.3 

19.0 

8.8 

11.8 

14.8 

17.8 

20.8 

1 

5J4 

7.3 

9.8 

12.3 

14.8 

17.3 

19.8 

7.9 

10.7 

13.4 

16.1 

18.8 

21.6 

6 

6.6 

8.9 

11.2 

13.5 

15.8 

18.1 

20  4 

7.3 

9.8 

12.3 

14.8 

17.3 

19.8 

22.3 

6% 

6.1 

8.2 

10.4 

12.5 

14.6 

16.7 

18.8 

6.7 

9.0 

11.3 

13.6 

15.9 

18.2 

20.5 

7 

5.7 

7.6 

9.6 

11.6 

13.5 

15.5 

17.5 

19.4 

6.2 

8.3 

10.5 

12.6 

14.6 

16.9 

19.0 

21.2 

1% 

5.3 

7.1 

8.9 

10.8 

12.6 

14.4 

16.3 

18.1 

5.8 

7.8 

9.8 

11.8 

13.8 

15.8 

17.8 

19.8 

8 

6.6 

8.4 

10.1 

11.8 

13.5 

15.2 

17.0 

20.4 

7.3 

9.1 

11.0 

12.9 

14.8 

16.6 

18.5 

22  3 

8K 

6.2 

7.9 

9.5 

11.1 

12.7 

14.3 

16.0 

19.2 

6.8 

8.6 

10.3 

12.1 

13.9 

15.6 

17.4 

20.9 

9 

5.9 

7.4 

8.9 

10.5 

12.0 

13.5 

15.1 

18.1 

21.1 

6.4 

8.1 

9.8 

11.4 

13.1 

14.8 

16.4 

19.8 

23.1 

9X2 

5.6 

7.0 

8.5 

9.9 

11.4 

12.8 

14.2 

17.1 

20.0 

6.1 

7.6 

9.2 

10.8 

12.4 

14.0 

15.5 

18.7 

21.9 

10 

5.3 

6.6 

8.0 

9.4 

10.8 

12.2 

13.5 

16.3 

19.0 

21.8 

5.8 

7.3 

8.8 

10.3 

11.8 

13.3 

14.8 

17.8 

20.8 

23.8 

12 

5.5 

6.6 

7.8 

89 

10.1 

11.2 

13.5 

15.8 

18.1 

20.4 

6.0 

7.3 

8.5 

9.8 

11.0 

12.3 

14.8 

17.3 

19.8 

22.3 

14 

5.6 

6.6 

7.6 

8.6 

9.6 

11.6 

13.5 

15.5 

17,5 

19.4 

6.2 

7.3 

8.3 

9.4 

10.5 

12.6 

14.8 

16.9 

19.0 

21.2 

16 

5.8 

6.6 

7.5 

8.4 

10.1 

11.8 

13.5 

15.2 

17.0 

6.3 

7.3 

8.2 

9.1 

11.0 

12.9 

14.8 

16.6 

18.5 

18 

5.1 

5.9 

6.6 

7.4 

8.9 

10.5 

12.0 

13.5 

15.1 

5.6 

6.4 

7.3 

8.1 

9.8 

11.4 

13.1 

14.8 

16  4 

20 

5.3 

6.0 

6.6 

80 

9.4 

10.8 

12.2 

13.5 

5.8 

6.5 

7.3 

8.8 

10.3 

11.8 

13.3 

14.8 

22 

5.4 

6.0 

7.3 

8.5 

9.8 

11.0 

12.3 

5.9 

6.6 

7.9 

9.3 

10.7 

12.0 

13.4 

24 

5.5 

6.6 

7  8 

8.9 

10.1 

11.2 

6.0 

7.3 

8.5 

9.8 

11.0 

12.3 

Example. — It  is  necessary  to  obtain  a  picture  ap- 
proximately 9x12  feet  with  a  lens  having  a  focal  length 
of  4  inches.  Find  the  throw. 

Solution. — Starting  with  4,  the  focal  length  of  the 
lens,  in  the  left  hand  column,  follow  along  a  horizontal 
line  to  the  right  until  the  nearest  size  of  picture  is  found, 
which  in  this  case  will  be  8.5x11.6.  Follow  this  column 
to  the  top  where  it  will  be  found  that  50  feet  is  the  re- 
quired throw. 


132  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

When  stereopticon  slides  are  to  used,  the  height  of 
the  screen  will  be  much  greater  in  proportion  to  the 
length,  so  that  a  separate  table  must  be  used  that  will 
take  the  size  of  the  slide  into  consideration.  The  height 
of  the  slides  really  determines  the  height  of  the  screen, 
when  both  classes  of  picture  are  used.  This  data  is  given 
in  a  second  table  headed  "Screen  sizes  for  Lantern 
Slides"  which  is  used  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the 
table  of  motion  picture  projection. 

When  the  factors  in  the  table  do  not  exactly  coin- 
cide with  the  given  quantities,  and  when  the  lens  de- 
terminations are  to  be  made  more  accurately  than  can  be 
taken  from  the  tables,  the  following  rules  may  be  used : 

Picture  Height  is  equal  to  the  height  of  the  aperture 
(11/16  inches)  multiplied  by  the  throw,  the  product 
being  divided  by  the  focal  length  of  the  lens.  All  di- 
mensions are  to  be  in  inches. 

Picture  width  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  aperture 
width  (15/16  inch)  by  the  length  of  throw,  the  product 
being  divided  by  the  focal  length  of  the  lens.  All  di- 
mensions to  be  in  inches. 

The  focal  length  of  the  lens  is  equal  to  the  film  aper- 
ture width  (15/16  inch)  multiplied  by  the  throw,  and 
divided  by  the  required  picture  width.  Dimensions  in 
inches. 

Throw  is  equal  to  the  width  of  the  desired  screen 
picture  multiplied  by  the  focal  length  of  the  lens  divided 
by  the  film  aperture  width.  Dimensions  in  inches. 

These  rules  are  approximate,  to  avoid  the  use  of 
more  complicated  calculations,  but  are  accurate  enough 
for  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended.  The  maxi- 
mum variation  from  the  actual  figures  will  not  exceed 
one  inch,  a  negligible  quantity  in  this  work.  These  rules 
are  worked  out  from  a  simple  arithmetical  proportion 
that  reads  as  follows  : 

Focal  length  :  Throw  : :  Film  picture  :  Screen  image. 

ADJUSTABLE  LENSES. 

The  focal  length  and  picture  size  can  be  changed 
on  some  lenses  by  turning  the  front  cell  by  the  rim,  which 
of  course  moves  the  front  lens  in  or  out,  according  to 
the  direction  of  rotation,  and  changes  the  relative  posi- 
tion between  the  front  and  rear  glasses.  Ry  this  means 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          133 

it  is  possible  to  secure  quite  a  variation  in  the  size  of  the 
image  for  a  given  throw,  in  some  cases  nearly  40  per 
cent.  These  are  special  lenses  and  quite  expensive.  A 
slight  reduction  in  the  picture  size  can  be  made  in  any 
lens  by  unscrewing  the  front  lens,  but  this  procedure 
does  not  usually  result  in  the  best  class  of  projection. 

MATCHED  LENSES. 

When  the  projector  is  to  be  used  for  projecting  both 
motion  pictures  and  slides,  the  condition  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  it  is  provided  with  two  lenses  placed  side  by 
side,  one  being  used  for  projecting  the  slides  and  the 
other  for  the  film.  These  lenses  are  matched  or  designed 
so  that  they  both  give  screen  pictures  of  the  same  width 
or  area  on  the  screen  with  the  same  throw,  notwithstand- 
ing the  difference  in  the  size  of  the  film  picture  and  the 
slide,  or  the  difference  in  their  proportion. 

If  the  screen  is  made  in  the  proportions  of  the  mo- 
tion picture,  it  is  evident  that  the  slide  image  can  be  no 
higher  than  the  height  of  the  motion  picture,  which  of 
course  results  in  a  narrow  slide  image.  Since  the  latter 
is  of  less  area  than  the  film  picture,  owing  to  its  smaller 
width,  it  will  be  much  brighter  with  slides  having  an  equal 
density.  With  images  of  equal  area  the  slide  will  be 
much  higher  than  the  film  image  but  will  be  of  the  same 
brightness. 

For  equal  heights  of  picture,  the  stereopticon  lens, 
or  "Stereo"  lens  as  it  is  called,  must  have  a  focal  length 
of  4.00  times  the  focal  length  of  the  motion  picture  lens. 
For  equal  areas,  the  stereo  lens  should  have  a  focal 
length  of  03.60  times  the  focal  length  of  the  motion  head 
lens.  The  same  lamp  house  and  condenser  lens  serves 
both  the  motion  head  and  stereo  lens. 

FOCUSING  THE  PICTURE. 

In  focusing,  the  optical  system  of  the  projector  is 
adjusted  so  that  a  bundle  of  light  rays  issuing  from  the 
objective  lens  converge  into  a  single  spot  on  the  screen, 
giving  a  sharp  and  distinct  image  of  the  film  picture  or 
slide.  The  point  at  which  the  rays  meet  and  form  the 
point  of  focus  depends  upon  the  distance  of  the  film  or 
slide  from  the  optical  center  of  the  objective  lens,  so  that 
by  properly  adjusting  the  lens  in  regard  to  the  film,  this 
condition  of  the  light  rays  may  be  made  to  occur  at  al- 


134  MOTION   PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 

most  any  point  along  a  center  line  that  passes  through 
the  center  of  the  lens. 

In  the  actual  projector,  the  objective  lens  is  made  so 
that  it  can  be  moved  back  and  forth,  for  a  limited  dis- 
tance in  a  sliding  collar  that  surrounds  the  lens  tube. 
If  the  distance  from  the  lens  to  the  screen,  or  the  dis- 
tance from  the  film  to  the  lens  is  altered,  the  lens  can 
be  moved  so  as  to  accommodate  the  new  condition  and 
again  bring  the  light  rays  into  a  single  point  of  con- 
vergence on  the  screen. 

When  the  screen  lies  on  either  side  of  the  point  of 
light  convergence,  the  picture  will  be  hazy  and  indistinct 
because  of  the  multitude  of  rays  making  individual  im- 
pressions over  a  perceptible  area.  When  the  lens  is  too 
far  from  the  film,  the  point  of  convergence  will  be  be- 
tween the  screen  and  the  lens.  When  the  lens  is  too  far 
from  the  film,  the  point  of  convergence  will  lie  beyond 
the  screen.  The  best  point  of  focus  for  the  clearest  pic- 
ture is  found  by  experiment,  or  by  moving  the  lens  tube 
back  and  forth  until  the  best  image  is  found. 

Without  an  anastigmat  lens  it  is  impossible  to  obtain 
a  sharp  picture  all  over  the  screen,  as  from  a  previous 
explanation,  it  is  impossible  for  an  ordinary  lens  to 
bring  all  of  the  rays  to  a  point  of  focus  at  the  same  time. 
With  an  astigmat  lens  or  a  lens  that  has  not  been  cor- 
rected for  this  fault,  the  blurred  or  out-of-focus  portions 
of  the  picture  occur  as  streaks,  some  times  radiating  from 
the  center  of  the  screen,  and  sometimes  appearing  as  cir- 
cular arcs,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  lens  curva- 
ture. The  prominence  of  the  uneven  focus  depends  a 
great  deal  upon  the  nature  of  the  film  or  slide,  sharp, 
clear  cut,  and  contrasty  slides  showing  the  defect  more 
clearly  than  those  having  a  more  uniform  density. 

With  cheaply  constructed  lenses,  the  focal  points 
of  all  rays  do  not  fall  in  the  same  plane,  and,  therefore, 
do  not  coincide  with  the  flat  surface  of  the  screen,  caus- 
ing the  image  again  to  be  out  of  focus  on  certain  por- 
tions of  the  screen.  The  focal  points  in  such  a  lens  lie 
on  the  surface  of  an  imaginary  sphere  whose  center  is 
the  optical  center  of  the  objective  lens,  the  image,  of 
course  being  curved,  would  necessarily  have  to  be  pro- 
jected on  a  spherical  screen  of  the  same  radius,  if  all  of 
the  portions  were  to  be  obtained  in  perfect  focus.  To 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          135 

do  away  with  the  curvature  entirely  requires  a  special 
lens,  composed  of  many  individual  glasses,  and  there- 
fore would  be  far  more  expensive  than  the  usual  lens.  In 
practice  the  lenses  are  not  completely  corrected  for 
spherical  aberration,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  strike  a 
compromise  between  the  focus  at  the  center  of  the  picture 
and  that  at  the  edges,  a  proceeding  that  is  hardly  noticea- 
ble to  the  average  spectator.  A  lens  that  projects  the 
image  without  the  error  due  to  curvature  is  said  to  have 
a  "flat  field."  Theoretically  the  field  is  never  entirely  flat. 

For  perfect  focus  with  any  lens  the  screen  must  be 
perpendicular  to  the  optical  center  of  the  lens.  If  this 
is  not  the  case,  the  focal  points  at  the  nearest  edge  of 
the  screen  will  lie  behind  the  nearest  edge  of  its  surface, 
and  will  be  in  front  of  the  surface  at  the  farthest  edge. 
When  a  screen  inclines  to  the  light  rays  in  this  manner, 
only  those  near  the  center  will  be  in  focus.  In  nearly  all 
theaters  it  is  necessary  to  install  the  projector  above  the 
level  of  the  screen,  so  for  this  reason  it  should  be  tilted 
back  at  the  top  so  as  to  meet  the  optical  center  of  the 
lens  at  right  angles.  In  some  cases  the  projector  lies  to 
one  side  of  the  vertical  center  of  the  screen,  so  that  it  is 
not  only  necessary  to  tilt  the  screen  back  at  the  top,  but 
to  move  one  of  the  vertical  edges  forward  as  well,  so 
that  it  is  perpendicular  to  the  light  rays  in  both  a  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  sense. 

When  the  projector  is  tilted,  without  tilting  the 
screen  to  a  corresponding  degree,  the  picture  will  not 
only  be  impossible  to  focus  properly,  but  will  be  distorted 
in  outline  as  well,  that  is,  the  sides  of  the  image  will  be 
inclined  with  one  another,  making  the  top  of  the  picture 
narrower  than  the  bottom.  This  distortion  makes  what 
is  known  as  a  "keystone"  picture  which  is  due  princi- 
pally to  the  fact  that  the  top  of  the  screen  is  nearer  the 
picture  than  the  bottom.  As  the  picture  widens  with 
every  increase  in  distance  between  the  projector,  the 
bottom  will  be  increased  in  width.  With  the  projector 
installed  at  one  side  of  the  screen,  the  keystone  effect  will 
be  horizontal  instead  of  vertical,  the  top  and  bottom  lines 
in  this  case  will  slant  together  the  nearest  edge  being  the 
smaller. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  vertical  screen  with 
an  elevated  projector,  the  keystone  effect  may  be  over- 


136  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

come,  with  small  angles,  by  setting  the  slide  or  picture 
aperture  eccentric  with  the  lens.  In  this  case  the  pro- 
jector is  no  longer  tilted  so  that  its  optical  center  meets 
the  center  of  the  screen,  but  is  set  perfectly  horizontal 
so  that  the  beam  of  light  is  deflected  entirely  by  the  ec- 
centricity of  the  lens.  In  practice  this  effect  is  obtained 
by  moving  the  lens,  rather  than  the  aperture  or  slide. 
The  eccentric  lens  is  really  preferable  to  the  inclined 
screen,  for  if  the  screen  is  at  a  considerable  angle  with 
the  line  of  sight  of  the  spectators,  the  angle  made  with 
the  line  of  vision  in  itself  is  conducive  to  a  keystone  effect, 
as  the  bottom  of  the  screen  is  nearer  the  audience  than 
the  top  by  the  amount  of  the  inclination.  The  distor- 
tion due  to  the  latter  effect  is  much  less  however  than 
that  due  to  the  angle  of  the  projector  with  the  screen, 
since  the  audience  is  already  at  an  angle,  even  if  the 
screen  were  perpendicular,  for  the  reason  that  they  are 
seated  below  the  center  of  the  screen. 

LAMP   ADJUSTMENT   IN   REGARD   TO   THE   LENS. 

In  general,  the  source  of  light  should  lie  on  the 
optical  center  of  both  the  condenser  and  objective  lenses 
so  that  the  light  rays  will  be  bent  through  equal  angles 
through  the  condensers.  The  position  of  the  light  there- 
fore governs  the  uniformity  of  light  distribution  on  the 
screen  and  the  definition  of  the  picture.  This  is  without 
regard  to  the  light  used  whether  kerosene,  calcium  or 
electric,  the  light  in  the  sense  that  it  is  applied  to  the  lens 
means  a  single  point  from  which  the  light  emanates,  in- 
dependent of  the  nature  of  its  source. 

The  brightest  spot  of  the  source  must  be  brought 
to  the  center  of  the  screen  when  the  source  oc- 
cupies more  than  the  theoretical  point,  as  is  always  the 
case  in  practice.  With  the  film  or  slide  removed,  an 
image  of  the  arc  or  flame  may  be  thrown  on  the  screen 
where  it  will  appear  in  an  inverted  position  as  in  the  case 
of  the  slide  or  film.  If  the  bright  spot  is  found  out  of  the 
center  by  this  means,  the  lamp  must  be  moved  in  the  op- 
posite direction  from  that  which  appears  on  the  screen. 
If  the  bright  spot  appears  above  the  center  of  the  screen, 
the  lamp  should  be  moved  up  instead  of  down  as  would 
appear  to  be  the  case.  All  projectors  are  provided  with 
a  rack  and  pinion  adjustment  by  which  the  lamp  may  be 
raised  or  lowered  without  opening  the  lamp  house. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  137 

In  the  figure  at  the  upper  left  hand  corner  of  Fig.  47 
is  an  effect  produced  by  an  eccentric  lamp  position,  the 
shadow  is  at  the  right  and  the  bright  spot  at  the  left. 
Owing  to  the  inversion  of  the  image,  the  lamp  should  be 
moved  to  the  left  to  correct  the  shadow.  In  the  next 
figure  the  lamp  position  is  at  the  opposite  side  of  the 
optical  center,  which  of  course  requires  a  right  hand 
movement  of  the  lamp.  In  Fig.  3  the  lamp  is  too  high 
and  should  be  lowered.  Fig.  4  is  a  reverse  case  in  which 
the  lamp  should  be  raised.  In  Fig.  5,  the  lamp  is  too 
near  the  condenser.  In  Fig.  6  it  is  too  far  from  the  con- 
denser. In  Fig.  8  the  lamp  is  in  the  correct  position. 


Fig.  47. — Showing  the  effects  of  having  the  lamp  out  of  the  optical  center  of 
the  lense.  In  this  figure  the  observer  is  supposed  to  be  viewing  the 
image  thrown  on  the  screen  by  the  lamp. 

CARE    OF    LENSES. 

The  condenser  lens  is  the  most  troublesome  item  of 
the  optical  system  since  it  is  subjected  directly  to  the  in- 
tense heat  of  the  lamp,  especially  with  condensers  having 
a  short  focal  length,  where  the  distance  between  the  arc 
and  glass  is  very  short.  Cracked  condensers  are  the 
most  common  of  the  projector's  ills. 

Broken  condensers  may  be  caused  by  the  close  prox- 
imity of  the  arc,  by  forcing  the  arc  above  its  normal  ca- 
pacity, by  poor  lamp  adjustment  in  which  the  operator 
brings  the  lamp  too  close  to  the  glass  in  making  adjust- 
ments, by  draughts  of  cold  air  in  the  lamp  house,  or  by 
having  the  condensers  fit  too  tightly  into  the  casing.  In 
the  latter  case  the  glass  is  broken  through  the  expansion 
of  the  lens,  causing  it  to  crowd  into  the  casing.  There 


138  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

should  be  at  least  1-16  inch  clearance  space  all  around 
the  lens. 

Sudden  changes  of  temperature  are  instrumental  in 
breaking  the  lenses,  and  these  may  be  occasioned  by  cold 
air  currents  entering  through  the  ventilation  holes  of  the 
lamp  house,  or  by  the  rapid  cooling  of  the  lamp  house 
after  the  lamp  is  extinguished.  In  several  cases  the  loss 
of  condenser  glasses  was  reduced  by  covering  the  lamp 
house  after  the  show,  which  had  a  tendency  to  relieve 
the  internal  strains  of  the  glass  through  slow  cooling.  In 
my  opinion  this  method  is  far  superior  to  that  followed 
by  many  people  who  attempt  to  anneal  the  glass  by  plac- 
ing the  lens  in  water  and  then  bringing  it  slowly  to  a 
boil,  as  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  is  quite  a  bit 
below  that  necessary  for  the  release  of  internal  strains. 

A  dirty  lens  obstructs  the  light,  even  when  the  film 
of  dirt  is  so  slight  as  to  be  hardly  noticeable  to  the  naked 
eye.  For  this  reason  the  external  glasses  of  the  ob- 
jective lens  and  both  lenses  of  the  condenser  should  be 
cleaned  thoroughly  every  day.  The  back  condenser 
lens,  which  is  inside  of  the  lamp  house,  is  especially  fast 
to  fog  up,  because  of  the  fine  dust  or  ash  thrown  from  the 
carbon  of  the  arc  lamp.  The  back  lens  of  the  objective 
often  has  drops  of  oil  thrown  on  it  by  the  machanism  of 
the  motion  head  and  should  be  watched  carefully. 

Loose  dirt  or  dust  may  be  removed  by  means  of  a 
soft  camel's-hair  brush,  without  taking  the  lenses  from 
the  tube,  but  the  best  method  is  to  wash  the  outside 
lenses  with  a  soft  linen  cloth  moistened  in  alcohol.  The 
alcohol  should  preferably  be  a  half  and  half  solution  of 
alcohol  and  water,  as  pure  alcohol  drys  too  rapidly  to 
enable  perfect  cleaning.  Only  old,  soft  cloth  should  be 
used,  so  that  no  scratches  will  be  made  on  the  surface 
of  the  lens,  and  to  avoid  deposits  of  lint. 

Simply  for  the  reason  that  a  lens  looks  clean,  when 
viewing  it  toward  the  light,  is  no  sign  that  it  is.  Breathe 
on  the  surface  of  the  glass,  and  if  the  cloud  of  moisture 
does  not  disappear  almost  instantly  you  can  make  up 
your  mind  that  there  are  enough  particles  of  dust  pres- 
ent to  hold  the  moisture.  Occasionally,  say  once  every 
month,  the  objective  lens  should  be  taken  apart  and  thor- 
oughly cleaned,  both  inside  and  out,  with  a  cloth  mois- 
tened in  alcohol.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  get  the 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING          139 

glasses  back  into  their  original  and  proper  places  or 
there  will  be  unlimited  trouble  as  the  result.  When 
cleaning  the  lens  do  not  use  too  much  alcohol,  simply 
moisten  the  cloth. 

With  a  cracked  condenser  it  is  possible  to  continue 
the  show  as  long  as  the  glass  remains  in  the  cell,  without 
seriously  injuring  the  projection.  With  lantern  slides  a 
crack  in  either  glass  will  show  on  the  screen,  a  crack 
in  the  front  lens  being  more  prominent  than  one  in  the 
rear.  When  the  glass  falls  out  of  the  cell,  changes  must 
be  made  in  the  system  to  save  the  show.  If  only  one 
condenser  glass  fails,  put  the  remaining  glass  in  the  front 
cell  and  move  the  lamp  back  until  the  apex  of  the  light 
cone  from  this  glass  appears  at  the  focal  center  of  the 
objective  lens.  This  will  not  affect  the  size  of  the  pic- 
ture, but  will  decrease  its  brilliancy. 

A  broken  objective  lens  is  almost  a  hopeless  case 
as  far  as  home  repairs  go,  for  it  is  difficult  for  the  aver- 
age operator  to  make  the  proper  adjustments  between 
the  different  lenses  in  the  tube,  even  if  it  were  possible 
for  him  to  obtain  a  perfect  mate  for  the  broken  lens.  It 
is  usually  cheaper  to  obtain  an  entirely  new  lens. 

After  the  proper  lens  has  been  obtained  for  the 
given  picture  size  and  throw,  it  may  be  tested  for  focus 
by  inserting  a  strip  of  mica  in  the  film  window  after  a 
few  scratches  have  been  made  on  the  surface  of  the  mica. 
Care  should  be  taken  so  that  the  mica  occupies  exactly 
the  same  position  as  the  film  would  were  it  in  place.  If 
the  scratch  marks  on  the  mica  can  be  focussed  on  the 
screen  sharp  and  clear  and  without  any  hazy  or  blurred 
spots  the  lens  is  accurate,  and  exactly  in  focus.  This 
operation  can  be  performed  every  day  just  before  the 
show,  so  that  no  time  will  be  lost  in  focussing  after  the 
film  has  started  to  run,  thus  sparing  the  audience  the 
annoyance  of  focussing  with  the  film. 

SOURCE   OF   LIGHT. 

Except  for  the  equipment  furnished  for  home  pro- 
jectors and  for  the  outfits  used  by  lecturers  or  traveling 
shows,  electricity  is  almost  universally  used  with  the 
motion  picture  projector  for  the  production  of  light,  as 
it  is  possible  to  obtain  nearly  any  desired  degree  of  illum- 
ination. The  electric  light  is  by  far  the  easiest  high  power 


140  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

illuminant  to  control,  is  clean  and  safe.  There  are  no 
tanks  to  fill  or  cause  trouble,  and  the  lighting  energy  sup- 
ply is  continuous  without  requiring  attention  on  the  part 
of  the  operator. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  stereopticon,  before  the  use 
of  electricity  was  so  widely  adopted,  the  calcium  light 
was  the  most  common  source  of  light  in  giving  public 
exhibitions.  The  light  in  this  form  of  lamp  was  pro- 
duced by  heating  a  small  portion  of  a  lime  or  calcium 
cylinder  to  incandescence  by  means  of  a  jet  of  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  gas.  The  "lime  light,"  as  it  was  called, 
gave  a  very  brilliant  white  light  that  gave  very  good  re- 
sults in  projection  as  far  as  the  picture  was  concerned, 
but  unfortunately  was  unreliable  and  difficult  to  control. 
For  good  results  it  was  necessary  to  turn  the  lime  cylin- 
der at  very  short  intervals  to  prevent  the  flame  from 
burning  deep  pits  into  the  cylinder  and  to  prevent  it  from 
cracking  and  falling  off.  The  calcium  was  very  brittle 
and  likely  to  collapse  entirely  during  the  projection,  caus- 
ing serious  interruptions  in  the  performance. 

Much  trouble  was  also  had  with  the  breakage  of  the 
condenser  lens,  owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  flame 
control,  in  the  case  of  pits  in  the  cylinder  that  turned  the 
flame  back  into  the  lens,  or  in  the  collapse  of  the  cylinder. 
Two  tanks  were  required,  one  for  the  hydrogen,  and  one 
for  the  oxygen,  both  gases  being  stored  under  high  pres- 
sure. When  illuminating  gas  was  obtainable,  it  was 
used  in  place  of  the  hydrogen,  being  much  cheaper  and 
easier  to  handle,  but  in  both  cases  the  oxygen  tank  was 
invariably  used  to  increase  the  rate  of  combustion  and 
increase  the  temperature,  the  atmospheric  oxygen  not 
being  sufficient  for  this  purpose. 

Acetylene  gas  has  been  much  used  by  traveling 
shows,  but  is  not  as  brilliant  as  the  electric  or  calcium 
light,  and  as  the  flame  is  much  larger  than  the  minute 
source  of  light  of  the  arc  or  the  incandescent  point  of 
the  calcium  candle,  the  projection  results  are  not  as  good. 
In  a  general  way  the  light  is  produced  in  much  the  same 
way  as  with  the  acetylene  automobile  lamp,  except  that  a 
number  of  burners  are  used  instead  of  the  single  burner 
used  in  the  automobile. 

The  gas  is  taken  either  from  an  acetylene  generator 
or  from  a  storage  tank  in  which  the  gas  is  stored  under 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          141 

a  high  pressure,  in  contact  with  a  mass  of  wool  saturated 
with  acetone,  a  substance  having  a  great  affinity  or  ab- 
sorbing power  for  acetylene.  The  method  of  generating 
the  acetylene  may  be  classified  into  two  principal  heads, 
those  in  which  the  calcium  carbide  is  dropped  into  the 
water  and  those  in  which  the  water  is  dropped  into  a 
basket  of  carbide.  In  either  case  the  gas  is  generated  by 
the  chemical  reaction  of  water  on  the  carbide,  the  latter 
being  a  dark,  stony  compound,  greatly  resembling  dark 
dolomite  or  sandstone. 

In  all  generators  the  generation  of  gas,  or  rather  its 
pressure,  is  controlled  by  regulating  the  water  supplied  to 
the  carbide  chamber,  the  particular  method  adopted  vary- 
ing with  each  make  of  generator.  Generally,  the  pres- 
sure of  the  gas  is  utilized  in  either  raising  the  carbide 
from  the  water,  or  for  forcing  the  water  back  and  out 
of  the  carbide  chamber  when  a  certain  predetermined 
pressure  has. been  exceeded.  Usually  there  is  no  pro- 
vision made  for  storing  the  gas  in  any  quantity,  the  gas 
being  generated  only  as  needed  by  the  lamp.  No  oxygen 
tank  is  needed.  Almost  any  automobile  generator  or  gas 
tank  may  be  used  successfully  with  the  acetylene  pro- 
jector. 

Except  with  the  smaller  projectors,  such  as  are  used 
at  home,  the  incandescent  lamp  is  seldom  used  with  the 
electric  current.  In  the  first  place,  the  intensity  of 
illumination  is  too  low,  and,  secondly  the  illumina- 
tion is  spread  over  too  great  an  area,  making  it 
impossible  to  obtain  correct  optical  relations.  The  arc 
lamp  in  which  the  light  is  generated  by  a  current  passing 
through  incandescent  carbon  vapor,  in  a  space  between 
two  carbon  electrodes,  generates  a  most  intense  light 
per  unit  of  area  and  therefore  is  very  small  and  compact, 
the  incandescent  area  being  the  nearest  possible  approach 
to  the  theoretical  point  required  by  the  optical  system. 

THE  ELECTRIC   ARC. 

When  a  conductor  carrying  an  electric  current  is 
broken  at  any  point  in  its  length,  the  increased  resistance 
of  the  air  surrounding  the  gap  causes  a  great  increase  in 
temperature ;  with  sufficient  current  the  temperature  in- 
crease will  fuse  the  material  of  which  the  circuit  is  com- 
posed and  turn  it  into  vapor.  As  the  vapor  in  the  gap, 
generally,  is  of  a  fair  conducting  value,  much  higher  than 


H2  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 

that  of  the  air,  the  current  continues  to  flow  across  the 
gap,  vaporizing  still  more  of  the  circuit  material.  This 
action  will  continue  until  the  ends  of  the  conductor  are 
entirely  consumed,  or  until  the  gap  has  been  widened  to 
such  a  point  that  the  current  can  no  longer  overcome  the 
increased  resistance.  The  high  temperature  of  the 
molten  portions  of  the  circuit  cause  a  brilliant  light,  the 
intensity  of  which  depends  upon  the  strength  of  the 
current  and  the  material  of  which  the  circuit  terminals 
are  composed.  The  higher  the  melting  and  vaporizing 
temperature  of  the  material,  the  more  intense  will  be  the 
light,  since  the  light  evolved  is  proportional  to  the  tem- 
perature. 

In  practice  the  terminals  of  the  gap  are  always 
carbon  pencils,  as  this  material  has  a  very  high  vaporiz- 
ing temperature,  is  a  fair  electrical  conductor,  and  does 
not  form  solid  or  liquid  oxides  or  slag  at  high  tempera- 
tures, as  in  the  case  of  metallic  electrodes.  The  carbons 
are  of  the  same  chemical  composition  as  charcoal,  the 
difference  between  the  electric  light  carbons  and  charcoal 
lying  principally  in  the  physical  form  of  the  element,  the 
electric  carbon  being  pressed  into  a  hard  and  solid  mass, 
while  the  charcoal  is  porus  and  soft.  The  electric  car- 
bons are  more  nearly  pure  carbon  than  charcoal,  being 
very  nearly  free  from  ash  or  other  metallic  oxides. 

The  character  of  the  arc  or  flame  between  the  two 
carbons  depends  primarily  upon  the  nature  of  the 
current  passing  between  the  two  points.  The  tem- 
perature and  quantity  of  light  depends  on  the  rate  at 
which  the  current  flows  across  the  gap,  or  the  number  of 
amperes  as  the  rate  of  current  flow  is  called.  With  direct 
current,  or  current  that  flows  continuously  in  one  direc- 
tion, the  greater  part  of  the  light  issues  from  the  "posi- 
tive" carbon,  or  the  carbon  through  which  the  current 
enters  the  gap  between  the  ends  of  the  carbon.  At  least 
80  per  cent  of  the  light  comes  from  the  positive. 

The  source  of  light  in  the  positive  carbon  is  a  little 
cup-shaped  depression  known  as  the  "crater,"  which  is 
maintained  at  a  temperature  exceeding  3,500  degrees 
Centigrade,  the  temperature  at  which  the  carbon  vapor- 
izes. The  negative  carbon  is  normally  pointed  at  the 
end,  and  is  also  incandescent  for  a  short  distance  from 
the  end,  but  contributes  little  light,  as  it  is  at  much  lower 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 


143 


temperature  than  the  positive.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  the  current  is  assumed  to  pass  from  the  positive  to 
the  negative  carbon  across  the  gap.  The  vapor  of  the 
arc,  which  is  of  a  violet  color,  contributes  very  little  to 
the  light,  it  being  a  thin  and  nearly  transparent  flame. 
To  obtain  the  greatest  effect  from  the  arc,  the  crater 
on  the  positive  carbon  should  be  pointed  in  the  direc- 
tion in  which  the  light  is  desired.  For  this  reason  the 
upper  carbon  of  a  street  arc  lamp  is  always  made  the 
positive  so  that  the  crater  will  point  down  and  throw  the 
light  on  the  street  or  sidewalk.  In  the  projector,  the 
crater  faces  the  condenser  lens  as  nearly  as  possible. 
Due  to  the  vaporization  of  the  carbon  of  which  the  elec- 
trodes are  made,  they  gradually  waste  away,  the  positive 


Fig.  47.     Formation  of  the  electric  arc. 

carbon  being  consumed  at  nearly  double  the  rate  of  the 
negative.  To  maintain  a  uniform  length  of  gap  and  a 
uniform  amount  of  light  it  is  therefore  necessary  to 
gradually  push  the  carbons  toward  one  another  as  the 
burning  proceeds.  To  keep  the  arc  in  the  same  position 
in  regard  to  a  stationary  point  on  the  lantern,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  positive  must  be  fed  forward  twice  as  fast 
as  the  negative.  In  street  lamps  the  carbons  are  fed 
automatically  by  a  mechanism  contained  within  the  lamp. 
With  projector  lamps  all  of  the  adjustments  are  made 
by  hand,  since  not  only  must  the  correct  distance  between 
the  carbons  be  maintained,  but  the  position  of  the  crater 
must  be  controlled  as  well,  a  task  that  is  beyond  the 
capabilities  of  any  mechanism  now  made. 


144  MOTION   PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 

With  alternating  current,  which  changes  its  direc- 
tion of  flow  periodically,  there  is  no  positive  or  negative 
carbon  in  a  true  sense,  except  for  an  instant  before  the 
reversal  of  the  current  takes  place.  The  current  in  this 
case  continually  surges  to  and  fro,  making  first  one  car- 
bon positive  and  then  the  other.  Both  carbons  in  this 
case  are  consumed  at  an  equal  rate.  Small  craters  are 
formed  in  both  carbons  with  an  alternating  current,  but 
neither  of  them  is  as  hot  or  gives  as  much  light  as  the 
single  crater  of  the  direct  current  arc.  As  the  two 
craters  are  necessarily  pointed  in  opposite  directions  it 
is  possible  to  utilize  only  a  small  portion  of  the  light 
given  by  either  of  them,  the  total  amount  of  light  being 
very  small  when  compared  with  the  direct  current  light 
with  an  equal  amount  of  current. 

The  carbons  of  a  direct  current  arc  lamp  are  set 


Fig.  48.     Differing  arrangements  of  carbons. 

at  an  angle  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  degrees  with  the 
optical  center  of  the  projector,  with  the  arc  directly  on 
the  center  line,  so  that  the  crater  partially  faces  the  con- 
denser. By  offsetting  the  carbons,  or  by  pulling  one 
carbon  past  the  center  line  of  the  other,  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch,  the  upper,  or  positive  carbon,  burns  diagon- 
ally, so  that  the  crater  slants  still  more  in  the  direction 
of  the  condenser,  giving  more  light  at  that  point.  The 
exact  angle  at  which  the  carbons  are  inclined  to  the 
center  line  of  the  lens  depends  upon  the  length  of  the 
arc  and  the  amount  of  offset,  as  with  a  long  arc  it  is 
possible  to  incline  the  carbons  farther  and  bring  the 
crater  more  nearly  into  the  field  of  the  condenser  with- 
out danger  of  having  the  lower  carbon  coming  between 
the  crater  and  the  lens  and  interfering  with  the  light. 
The  lower  carbon  of  course  would  throw  a  shadow  on 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING          145 

the  condenser.     The  carbons  are  parallel  with  one  an- 
other. 

With  alternating  current,  the  carbons  are  set  at  an 
obtuse  angle  with  one  another,  for,  if  they  were  parallel, 
the  light  would  be  thrown  equally  in  all  directions. 
When  set  at  this  angle  the  light  is  thrown  out  from  the 
apex  of  the  angle  which  coincides  with  the  location  of 
the  arc. 

REDUCING  AND  RECTIFYING  THE  CURRENT. 

Since  the  voltage  across  the  arc  is  only  45  volts, 
with  a  lighting  supply  ranging  from  110  to  220  volts,  it  is 
necessary  to  reduce  or  "choke  down"  the  excessive  flow 
of  current  that  would  result  from  this  great  difference  in 


Fig.  49.     Arc  regulating  mechanism  in  projector. 

voltage.  An  electric  arc  has  no  definite  resistance,  like 
other  apparatus,  due  to  the  fluctuations  in  the  length  of 
the  gap  between  the  carbon  points,  so  it  is  evident  that 
the  device  inserted  for  the  reduction  of  the  flow  must  be 
variable  in  capacity  to  meet  the  different  conditions  that 
occur  in  feeding  the  carbons. 

There  are  various  methods  of  controlling  the  current 
flow,  the  exact  method  depending  on  the  character  of 
the  current  (whether  direct  or  alternating),  and  the  per- 
missible cost  of  the  apparatus.  The  simplest  device  is 
a  "resistance"  placed  in  series  with  the  arc,  which  is 
commonly  known  as  a  "rheostat,"  the  action  of  this  being 
similar  to  a  mechanical  brake  or  friction  clutch  on  a 
machine  that  is  used  for  stopping  or  reducing  its  ve- 


1  MOTION   PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 

locity.  In  both  cases  the  excess  energy  is  converted  into 
heat,  which  is  dissipated  into  the  surrounding  air. 

A  rheostat  is  a  most  uneconomical  method  of  re- 
ducing the  current,  as  a  very  great  proportion  of  the  cur- 
rent passing  through  the  meter  to  the  arc  is  converted 
into  useless  heat.  On  a  1 10  volt  circuit  this  heat  produc- 
tion represents  approximately  53  per  cent  of  the  total 
energy,  while  on  220  volts  nearly  78  per  cent  is  thrown 
into  the  air.  The  rheostat  is  an  absolute  necessity  with 
direct  current,  this  being  practically  the  only  objection 
to  this  class  of  supply,  while  its  use  with  alternating 
current  is  optional.  When  the  rheostat  is  used  in  series 
with  the  arc,  at  least  15  volts  should  be  allowed  above 
the  45  volts  required  by  the  arc,  making  the  equivalent 
arc  voltage  45+15=60.  Sixty  volts  should  be  the  mini- 
mum pressure  for  the  arc  circuit. 

To  find  the  resistance  necessary  for  a  given  line 
voltage  we  apply  Ohm's  law,  a  formula  in  which  E  rep- 
resents the  voltage  of  the  line ;  C  is  the  required  current 
in  amperes ;  and  R  is  the  total  resistance  of  the  circuit  in 
ohms.  According  to  the  formula. 

E 

R  =  — 
C 

The  value  of  E  in  the  case  of  the  arc  circuit  is  ob- 
tained by  subtracting  the  voltage  of  the  arc  (45  volts) 
from  the  total  line  voltage  before  proceeding  with  the 
rest  of  the  calculation.  If  the  voltage  is  220,  and  the 
arc  voltage  45,  E  would  be,  220 — 45=175  volts.  Sub- 
stituting this  value  of  E  in  the  formula,  we  have 
E  (220—45)  175 

R  =;  —  = =  —  =  7  ohms,  the  required  re- 

C  25  25 

sistance  of  the  rheostat.  Rheostats  are  manufactured 
for  different  voltages  and  current  capacities  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  essential  to  specify  the  maximum  current 
and  voltage  used. 

The  actual  rheostat  consists  of  an  iron  case  in 
which  is  mounted  a  number  of  coils  of  resistance  wire, 
the  coils  being  mounted  on  incombustible  insulating 
spools  which  insulate  the  wire  from  the  case.  These 
coils  are  connected  in  "series,"  that  is,  the  end  wire  of  one 
coil  is  connected  to  the  beginning  of  the  second,  and  so 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

on  through  the  series,  making  it  necessary  for  the  cur- 
rent to  flow  through  the  entire  length  of  all  of  the  coils 
in  turn.  In  effect  this  is  the  same  as  a  single  resistance 
wire  equal  in  length  to  the  sum  of  the  individual  coils. 
The  wire  used  in  the  rheostat  coils  has  many  times  the 
resisting  value  of  the  copper  wire  commonly  used  in 
making  the  connections,  so  that  the  rheostat  will  be  as 
small  and  compact  as  possible.  With  a  given  quality  and 
size  of  wire,  the  resistance  depends  entirely  upon  the 
total  length  of  the  wire.  The  longer  the  wire,  the  higher 
the  resistance.  The  current  carrying  capacity  depends 
on  the  diameter  of  the  wire,  and  not  upon  its  length. 

The  majority  of  rheostats  are  of  the  adjustable 
type,  in  which  it  is  possible  to  cut  out  more  or  less  dfcthe 
coils,  thus  varying  the  resistance.  Cutting  out  the  coils 
reduces  the  resistance  and  increases  the  current.  This 
operation  may  be  performed  by  means  of  a  switch  lever, 
or  by  changing  the  connections  of  the  lamp  in  regard  to 
the  coils.  In  the  latter  type  of  rheostat,  one  line  wire  is 
connected  to  the  end  of  the  last  coil,  while  the  other  line 
wire  is  connected  to  points  between  the  remainder  of  the 
coils,  this  intermediate  connection  preventing  the  current 
from  flowing  through  a  number  of  the  coils. 

When  it  is  found  necessary  to  increase  the  current 
capacity  of  the  rheostat,  a  second  rheostat  may  be  con- 
nected in  "parallel"  with  the  first,  that  is,  the  two  wires 
of  the  second  rheostat  are  connected  with  the  end  wires 
of  the  first,  so  that  the  current  is  split  up  into  two  differ- 
ent paths,  one-half  of  the  current  going  through  one 
rheostat,  and  one-half  through  the  other.  Since  the 
same  voltage  acts  on  both  rheostats,  the  same  amount 
of  current  passes  through  each  one  of  them,  as  in  the 
first  case,  making  the  total  current  double  that  of  the 
single  rheostat.  This  is  the  same  thing  as  doubling  the 
flow  of  water  into  a  tank  by  supplying  two  pipes  instead 
of  one.  If  more  than  double  the  capacity  of  two  rheo- 
stats is  required,  the  levers  or  connections  of  both  the 
rheostats  may  be  changed,  as  in  the  case  of  the  single 
rheostat,  taking  care,  however,  to  make  the  same  change 
on  both  rheostats. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  understood  that  both 
rheostats  should  have  the  same  amount  of  resistance  to 


48  MOTION   PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 

prevent  an  excessive  current  from  flowing  through  the 
rheostat  having  the  lowest  resistance.  If  the  separate 
"steps"  of  the  rheostats  are  not  of  the  same  resistance, 
there  will  be  a  greater  current  through  one  than  through 
the  other,  when  the  intermediate  connections  are  made. 

When  heavy  currents  are  used,  cast  metal  "grids" 
are  used  in  place  of  wire  coils,  as  it  is  usually  more  con- 
venient to  obtain  a  compact  resistance  with  the  castings 
than  with  the  large  diameter  wire  that  would  be  necessary 
under  these  conditions.  The  "grids"  of  this  type  are  thin 
plates,  slotted  from  either  side,  so  that  a  zig-zag  circuit  is 
formed  from  one  end  of  the  plate  to  the  other. 

The  rheostats  used  for  alternating  current  are  iden- 
tical in  form  and  principle  to  those  used  with  direct 
current. 

Should  the  coils  or  grids  of  the  rheostat  become 
red  hot  with  the  full  resistance  in  circuit,  it  is  evident 
that  the  resistance  is  too  low  for  the  work,  or  that  the 
rheostat  is  too  small  in  regard  to  current  carrying  ca- 
pacity. If  the  arc  is  right  under  these  conditions  and  not 
drawing  excessive  current  for  the  projection  required,  a 
rheostat  of  higher  capacity  should  be  obtained  at  once,  to 
avoid  the  necessity  of  a  shut  down,  due  to  burned  out 
coils.  The  coils  should  be  invisible  in  the  dark,  even 
when  working  at  their  fulles.t  capacity.  The  best  resist- 
ance wire  made  deteriorates  at  red  heat. 

EMERGENCY  RHEOSTAT. 

In  case  of  an  emergency  due  to  the  failure  of  the 
rheostat,  a  simple  resistance  may  be  made  out  of  a  pail 
of  water  and  two  metal  plates.  The  pail  is  nearly  filled 
with  pure  water  and  the  plates  are  then  immersed  after 
being  connected  with  the  two  wires  leading  from  the 
main  supply  circuit  and  lamp.  As  pure  water  is  prac- 
tically a  non-conductor,  salt  or  sal-soda  is  now  added  to 
the  water  at  intervals,  and  in  small  quantities,  in  order 
to  increase  the  conductivity  of  the  water.  The  addition 
of  the  salt  is  continued  until  the  required  amount  of  cur- 
rent is  flowing  through  the  lamp. 

Use  only  a  wooden  pail  for  a  water  rheostat,  as 
the  plates  are  to  be  hung  over  its  edges,  and  stand 
the  pail  on  a  chair  or  other  insulating  support  to 
avoid  a  ground.  The  metal  plates  are  connected  in  circuit 


MOTION   PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING          149 

in  the  same  way  as  the  usual  rheostat,  one  plate  being 
connected  with  the  lamp,  the  other  with  the  supply  cir- 
cuit. For  high  voltages,  such  as  the  550  volt  current 
used  on  street  railway  systems,  a  number  of  pails  can 
be  connected  in  series,  or  a  larger  rheostat  may  be  made 
with  a  barrel. 

With  the  pails,  it  will  be  found  possible  to  run 
through  an  entire  evening  with  a  current  as  high  as  40 
or  50  amperes;  it  usually  being  necessary  to  add  a  little 
water  from  time  to  time  to  compensate  for  the  loss  by 
evaporation  and  electrolysis. 

ALTERNATING  CURRENT  REGULATION. 

In  general,  there  are  five  methods  of  reducing  the 
voltage  of  the  line  to  that  of  the  lamp : 

(1)  Rheostatic  resistance. 

(2)  Reactance  coils. 

(3)  Transformers. 

(4)  Mercury  arc  converters. 

(5)  Motor  generators. 

The  device  used  depends  principally  on  whether 
alternating  current  is  to  be  used  at  the  arc,  or  whether 
the  alternating  current  of  the  line  is  to  be  converted  into 
direct  current  in  addition.  The  first  three  appliances 
listed  simply  reduce  the  voltage  at  the  arc,  without 
changing  the  character  of  the  current.  The  mercury  arc 
converter  and  the  motor  generator  transform  the  alter- 
nating current  into  direct. 

As  explained  under  the  head  of  "the  arc  light,"  it  is 
far  preferable  to  have  direct  current,  because  of  its 
greater  efficiency  and  the  greater  purity  of  color  in  the 
projector.  Unfortunately,  all  of  the  converting  apparatus 
is  expensive  in  the  first  cost,  and  in  one  case,  expensive 
in  its  maintenance.  The  rheostat  mentioned  is  exactly 
the  same  as  the  one  previously  described,  the  three  suc- 
ceeding devices  cannot  be  used  with  direct  current.  The 
fifth  item — the  motor  generator — may  be  used  on  both 
alternating  and  direct  current. 

TRANSFORMERS 

Transformers  reduce  the  line  voltage  of  alternating 
currents  without  introducing  ohmic  resistance  into  the 
circuit,  by  a  principle  known  as  "induction."  Two 
separate  systems  of  copper  coils  or  circuits  are  provided 
that  are  absolutely  independent  of  one  another,  and  which 


150 

have  no  electrical  connection,  the  line  current  passing 
through  one  coil,  and  the  lamp  current  through  the 
other.  Both  coils  are  wound  over  a  single  iron  core, 
and  are  insulated  from  the  core  as  well  as  from  each 
other. 

As  the  line  current  surges  through  the  coil  (primary 
coil),  it  alternately  magnetizes  and  demagnatizes  the 
iron  core  around  which  it  is  wrapped.  As  the  lamp  cir- 
cuit coil  is  wrapped  around  the  same  core,  the  magnetic 
influence  also  passes  through  the  turns  of  wire  that  con- 
stitute this  coil,  generating  a  current  in  the  lamp  circuit. 
By  properly  proportioning  the  dimensions  of  the  core, and 
the  number  of  turns  in  the  two  coils  it  is  possible  to  ob- 
tain any  desired  relation  between  the  voltage  of  the 
primary  coil  (main  circuit  coil)  and  the  secondary  coil 
(the  lamp  circuit  coil). 

The  efficiency  of  the  transformer  is  the  highest  of 
any  piece  of  commercial  electrical  apparatus,  and  there- 
fore the  transformation  in  voltage  is  accompanied  with 
very  little  loss  in  energy.  This  loss  is  seldom  more  than 
10  per  cent  in  a  well  designed  transformer  and  is  usually 
5  per  cent  or  even  less.  The  current  "induced"  in 
the  lamp  circuit  is  of  course  alternating,  as  it  follows 
the  impulses  of  the  line  current  in  the  primary.  The 
secondary  coil  is  connected  to  the  lamp  circuit  in  the 
same  way  that  the  direct  current  supply  wires  leading 
from  the  rheostat  and  line  are  connected  to  the  lamp. 
The  primary  coil  is  connected  directly  across  the  line 
through  a  suitable  switch  and  fuse. 

The  core  and  coils  are  placed  in  an  iron  box  which 
is  then  filled  with  insulating  oil,  that  increases  the  insu- 
lation and  aids  in  getting  rid  of  the  small  amount  of 
heat  that  is  generated  in  the  coils.  Taps  are  often  led 
from  intermediate  points  in  the  winding  so  that  the  volt- 
age may  be  raised  in  the  primary  circuit. 

REACTANCE   COILS    ( CHOKE    COILS ) 

A  reactance  or  choke  coil  consists  of  a  single  coil 
of  copper  wire  wound  around  an  iron  core,  this  coil  being 
placed  in  series  with  the  lamp  and  supply  circuit.  In 
effect,  it  is  a  combined  primary  and  secondary,  as  the 
line  current  in  passing  through  the  coil,  magnetizes  the 
core,  which  in  turn  generates  another  current  that  is 


MOTION   PICTURE    MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING          1 

opposed  in  direction  to  the  line  current.  The  individual 
current  created  by  the  core  of  course  cuts  down  the  cur- 
rent flow  by  creating  a  pressure  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, the  exact  quantity  of  current  depends  on  the  "reac- 
tance" or  upon  the  number  of  turns  and  the  properties 
of  the  core. 

In  the  case  of  the  reactance  coil,  the  line  current 
passes  through  the  lamp  and  is  alternating  at  all  points 
in  the  circuit.  The  efficiency,  while  not  as  high  as  in  the 
case  of  the  transformer,  is  much  higher  than  with  a 
rheostat,  and  very  little  energy  is  dissipated  in  the  form 
of  heat.  The  current  can  either  be  regulated  by  means 
of  intermediate  tapping  points  on  the  primary  or  by 
sliding  the  iron  core  in  relation  to  the  coils. 

MOTOR  GENERATORS 

When  alternating  current  is  to  be  converted  into 
direct  by  means  of  a  motor-generator,  the  set  consists 
of  an  alternating  *  current  motor  and  a  direct  current 
dynamo  connected  by  a  coupling  on  the  ends  of  these  re- 
spective shafts.  The  energy  taken  from  the  a.  c.  mains 
by  the  motor  drives  the  dynamo,  which  in  turn  gener- 
ates direct  current  at  the  proper  voltage  for  the  lamps. 
This  transformation  is  accompanied  by  an  efficiency  loss 
of  from  20  to  40  per  cent,  due  to  the  bearing  friction 
and  electrical  losses  in  the  two  machines.  This  loss  is 
more  than  offset  by  the  increased  efficiency  of  the  lamp, 
when  using  direct  in  place  of  alternating  current,  and  in 
the  increased  brilliancy  of  the  projection. 

MERCURY   VAPOR   RECTIFIERS 

When  an  alternating  current  is  led  into  an  ex- 
hausted glass  vessel  containing  a  small  puddle  of  mer- 
cury so  that  the  puddle  forms  one  electrode,  it  will  be 
found  after  establishing  the  current  flow  in  one  direction, 
that  the  current  will  instantly  cease  at  the  moment  of 
reversal.  In  this  way,  the  simple  mercury  tube  will 
allow  waves  to  pass  in  one  direction,  but  not  in  the 
other,  the  reverse  waves  being  dammed  out  by  an  in- 
creased ohmic  resistance  that  is  built  up  at  the  instant 
of  reversal.  By  means  of  small  reactance  coils  in  ad- 
dition to  the  tube,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  nearly  con- 
tinuous flow  of  direct  current  with  an  alternating  supply. 
During  the  operation  of  the  tube,  the  current  passes 


152  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 

through  the  vapor  formed  by  the  heated  mercury  caus- 
ing a  faint  bluish  green  light. 

After  continued  service,  the  internal  conditions  of 
the  tube  become  altered  and  finally  the  tube  becomes 
useless  so  that  it  must  be  replaced  by  an  entirely  new 
tube.  These  replacements  are  expensive  and  add  a  very 
considerable  amount  to  the  running  expenses  of  the  show. 
The  life  of  a  tube  is  about  600  hours. 

CARBONS  AND  THEIR  CARE. 

As  explained  in  a  preceding  paragraph,  the  car- 
bons are  composed  of  some  form  of  solid  carbon  such  as 
coke,  retort  residue,  or  soot,  the  carbon  particles  being 
held  together  in  a  suitable  form  by  means  of  a  "binder." 
After  being  very  carefully  pulverized,  the  carbon  dust  is 
mixed  thoroughly  with  the  semi-fluid  binder,  is  drawn  into 
a  cylindrical  form  through  dies,  and  then  is  baked  into 
a  hard  homogeneous  mass.  The  baking  process  reduces 
the  binder  into  carboniferous  mass  similar  to  the  original 
carbon  base  so  that  the  cross-section  of  a  solid  carbon  is 
of  practically  a  uniform  consistency.  In  drawing  "cored" 
carbons,  a  small  hole  is  left  in  the  center  of  the  rod  for 
the  reception  of  the  semi-porous  core  that  is  squirted  into 
place  after  the  baking.  This  core  is  generally  made  of 
carbon  dust  with  a  water-glass  binder  which  is  dried  in 
place,  and  not  baked  as  in  the  case  of  the  outer  hard  car- 
bon shell. 

The  core  aids  in  keeping  the  crater  of  the  arc  in  the 
center  of  the  carbon,  because  of  its  relatively  lower  re- 
sistance, and  is  an  absolute  necessity  with  alternating  cur- 
rent. For  direct  current,  the  upper  carbon  is  cored  and 
the  lower  is  solid,  the  upper  carbon  being  the  positive. 
With  alternating  current  both  carbons  should  be  cored 
as  the  crater  is  formed  on  both. 

The  quality  of  the  carbons,  as  well  as  their  correct 
adjustment  in  the  lamp  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in 
obtaining  satisfactory  projection,  and  the  inferior  brands 
or  seconds  should  not  be  tolerated  in  even  the  smallest 
shows.  Cracks,  sputtering,  off  colored  light,  and  a  hun- 
dred other  troubles  can  be  traced  directly  to  the  use  of 
cheap  commercial  rods  intended  for  general  illuminating 
purposes. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING          153 

The  size  of  the  carbons  depends  principally  upon 
the  amount  of  current  used,  and  also  to  some  ex- 
tent upon  the  machine,  the  character  of  the  current 
and  the  make  of  the  carbons.  This  point  is  best  deter- 
mined by  experiment,  the  operator  trying  out  different 
makes  and  sizes  from  time  to  time  until  the  best  combina- 
tion is  found.  Two  sizes  of  carbons  are  generally  used 
with  direct  current,  the  upper  carbon  being  from  1/16 
to  l/%  inch  larger  in  diameter  than  the  lower.  With  alter- 
nating current  both  the  upper  and  lower  are  of  the  same 
diameter.  The  following  tables  will  serve  as  a  guide  in 
selecting  the  proper  diameter  when  the  current  consump- 
tion is  known. 

CARBONS   FOR  CONTINUOUS   CURRENT. 

Current  Solid  Lower  Carbon  Cored  Upper  Carbon 

Amperes         Inches  M.  M.  Inches           M.  M. 

10-15              .394  10  .511  13 

15-25              .472  12  .630  16 

25-40              .511  13  .709                 18 

40-50               .551  14  .787  20 

50-60              .630  16  .866  22 

60-100             .709  18  .984  25 

CARBONS    FOR    ALTERNATING    CURRENT. 

Current  Upper    and  Lower    Cored    Carbons 

Amperes  Inches  M.   M. 

15-25  .394  10 

25-35  .511  13 

30-40  .630  16 

40-50  .709  18 

50-65  .787  20 

65-80  .866  22 

80-100  .984  25 

In  regard  to  the  length  of  the  carbons,  it  is  certainly 
advisable  to  obtain  the  longest  rods  that  can  be  con- 
veniently used  in  the  lamp  house,  for  owing  to  waste  ends, 
or  "butts,"  the  percentage  of  waste  is  less  with  the  longer 
rods  since  the  butt  is  of  the  same  length  in  all  cases.  In 
this  way,  a  large  lamp  house  is  an  important  factor  in 
cutting  down  the  carbon  bill  and  in  the  loss  of  time  due 
to  the  renewals  of  the  carbons.  The  carbons  should  be 
perfectly  straight  and  round,  and  of  a  uniform  diameter 
so  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  continually  readjust 
the  lamp  during  its  operation. 

When  setting  up  a  projector  that  is  to  be  used  with 
direct  current,  be  sure  that  the  upper  carbon  is  connected 


154  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 

with  the  positive  pole  or  wire  of  the  supply  main.  The 
polarity  can  be  determined  by  temporarily  connecting  the 
lamp  with  the  mains,  installing  the  carbons  and  turning 
on  the  current.  After  burning  for  two  minutes  or  so, 
open  the  switch  and  examine  the  carbon  points.  The 
carbon  that  remains  red  hot  the  longest  is  the  positive. 
If  the  hottest  carbon  is  not  in  the  upper  holder,  reverse 
the  wires  before  attempting  to  operate  the  machine.  It 
is  only  necessary  to  make  this  test  once,  as  the  illuminat- 
ing companies  exercise  great  care  in  maintaining  a  con- 
stant polarity  on  their  mains.  When  performing  this  test, 
it  is  almost  needless  to  say  the  rheostat  should  be  placed 
in  series  with  the  lamp  before  closing  the  switch,  and 
that  the  carbons  should  be  of  equal  sizes  in  both  holders. 

After  burning,  it  will  be  noted  that  one  carbon,  the 
positive,  has  a  small  depression  that  indicates  the  position 
of  the  crater.  The  presence  of  the  crater  is  not  as  ac- 
curate an  indication  of  the  polarity  as  the  test  previously 
given,  especially  if  the  lamp  is  only  burned  a  few  minutes, 
as  is  usually  the  case  under  test  conditions. 

In  adjusting  the  carbons,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  object  of  the  operation  is  to  have  the  crater 
face  the  condenser  lens  at  as  flat  an  angle  as  possible,  and 
to  have  its  area  as  great  as  possible  with  a  given  cur- 
rent. The  amount  of  light  that  is  thrown  directly  on 
the  condenser  lens  determines  the  efficiency  of  the  lamp, 
for  very  little  light  is  reflected  from  the  sides  of  the 
lamp  house  to  the  lens. 

All  modern  projectors  are  provided  with  hinged 
lamps  that  allow  of  a  considerable  variation  in  the  angle 
that  the  lamp  makes  with  the  center  line  of  the  lenses, 
so  that  the  location  of  the  crater  is  easily  brought  to  the 
correct  point  in  regard  to  the  condenser.  Practically  the 
only  limit  to  the  angular  position  of  the  crater  is  that 
imposed  by  the  lower  carbon.  With  too  great  an  angle 
the  lower  carbon  tip  will  come  between  the  crater  and 
condenser  and  cause  a  shadow. 

The  position  of  the  crater  on  the  carbon  tip  may 
be  brought  to  the  front  by  advancing  the  lower  carbon. 
If  the  carbons  are  directly  in  line  with  one  another  the 
crater  will  be  too  low  resulting  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
light  being  thrown  to  the  bottom  of  the  lamp  house.  This 
back  and  forth  adjustment  of  the  lower  carbon  is  gen- 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING  155 

erally  made  by  means  of  a  hand  wheel  that  extends 
through  the  back  of  the  lamp  house. 

Both  carbon  tips  should  be  sharpened  to  a  flattened 
cone  form  before  inserting  in  the  holder,  the  flattened 
end  space  being  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter. This  point  will  be  your  guide  in  setting  the  carbons 
after  striking  the  arc  and  is  instrumental  in  sustain- 
ing the  arc  until  a  permanent  crater  is  formed.  Since 
the  resistance  between  the  carbon  and  carbon  clamps  is 
directly  proportional  to  the  pressure  exerted  by  the 
clamps  on  the  carbons  they  should  be  carefully  tight- 
ened before  turning  on  the  current  in  order  to  prevent 
excessive  heating  at  the  points  of  contact.  With  poor 
contact,  minute  portions  of  the  carbon  will  be  con- 
sumed under  the  clamp  which  will  result  in  an  additional 
resistance  and  heating  effect  due  to  small  arcs  that  will 
be  maintained  between  the  clamps  and  the  surfaces 
of  the  carbons. 

With  excessive  currents,  or  poor  contacts,  the  bind- 
ing material  of  the  rods  will  be  consumed  resulting  in 
deposits  of  carbon  dust  in  the  lamp  house  on  the  carbon 
holders.  With  the  contact  pressure  and  current  re- 
maining constant  this  effect  is,  in  a  way,  an  index  to  the 
quality  of  the  carbons,  some  of  which  have  a  higher  in- 
ternal resistance  than  others.  This  loss  of  materials  is 
particularly  noticeable  in  the  vicinity  of  the  arc  where 
the  carbons  will  taper  to  a  long  needle  point.  Solid  de- 
posits are  sometimes  carried  across  the  gap  from  the 
upper  to  the  lower  carbon  causing  a  heavy  mushroom 
tip  on  the  lower  carbon.  This  is  generally  caused  by 
an  extremely  short  arc  across  which  the  carbon  gas 
passes  without  becoming  completely  oxydized.  This  car- 
bon gas  on  coming  into  contact  with  the  comparatively 
cool  negative  carbon  is  condensed  forming  the  "growth" 
before  mentioned.  The  only  remedy  for  this  condition 
is  a  longer  arc. 

The  inside  of  the  carbon  clamps  should  be  smoothed 
up  every  few  days  with  a  file  or  emery  cloth  as  the 
oxide  scale  and  rough  metallic  surfaces  cause  very  bad 
contact.  The  increased  heat  due  to  a  dirty  clamp  is 
instrumental  in  weakening  the  carbon  clamps  and  arms 
which  are  generally  of  bronze,  a  metal  that  weakens 


156  MOTION   PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 

rapidly  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature.  If  the 
clamps  are  causing  much  trouble  it  will  be  best  to  have 
a  new  set  made  up  of  steel  bar  by  the  local  blacksmith. 

With  direct  current,  the  lower  carbon  should  be 
advanced  only  enough  to  bring  the  crater  to  the  front 
edge  of  the  upper  carbon,  and  no  more.  If  the  advance 
is  excessive,  the  crater  will  extend  up  and  along  the 
front  face  of  the  upper  carbon  with  the  result  that  only 
the  front  half  will  be  consumed,  leaving  a  long  uncon- 
sumed  strip  in  the  rear.  If  the  advance  is  not  sufficient 
the  crater  will  be  too  low  and  will  not  face  the  con- 
densers. 

When  alternating  current  is  used,  the  adjustment  is 
much  more  particular  as  the  craters  are  much  smaller 
and  much  more  easily  affected  by  a  slight  change  in 
the  movement.  Both  carbons  should  incline  at  a  con- 
siderable angle  with  one  another  (forming  an  obtuse 
angle)  and  the  ends  of  both  should  face  the  condenser 
at  the  same  degree,  since  with  alternating  current,  a 
crater  is  formed  in  both  carbons.  Compared  with  direct 
current  practice,  the  alternating  arc  is  comparatively 
short. 

WIRING  REGULATORS. 

In  nearly  every  town,  the  installation  of  electric 
light  wiring  is  regulated  by  ordinance,  the  exact  require- 
ments of  which  vary  with  the  locality.  In  every  case, 
the  wiring  is  regulated  by  the  board  of  fire  insurance  un- 
derwriters whose  authority  is  fully  of  as  much  import- 
ance, at  least  financially,  as  that  of  the  city  government. 
No  exhibitor  should  attempt  the  wiring  of  his  house  until 
he,  or  his  architects,  are  fully  informed  as  to  the  regu- 
lations of  both  of  these  bodies.  In  the  larger  cities, 
the  illuminating  companies  usually  refuse  to  connect  the 
interior  wiring  to  their  service  until  the  exhibitor  pro- 
duces an  inspector's  certificate  showing  that  the  wiring 
has  been  approved.  Because  of  the  wide  variation  in 
these  demands  it  is  only  possible  for  us  to  give  instruc- 
tions that  apply  to  all  installations,  regardless  of  the  lo- 
cations of  the  proposed  house.  Details  as  to  wire  sizes, 
insulation,  materials,  etc.,  will  have  to  be  ascertained 
individually  by  the  authorities  in  charge. 

THE  CIRCUIT  (DIRECT  CURRENT). 

A  complete  path  around  which  an  electric  current 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          157 

flows  is  known  as  its  "circuit."  In  the  case  of  the  pro- 
jector circuit,  this  path  is  made  up  of  the  lamp,  the 
rheostat  (or  other  current-controlling  device),  the 
meter,  fuses  and  switch.  With  the  switches  closed  and 
all  parts  in  their  proper  relation  so  that  it  is  possible 
for  the  current  to  flow  the  circuit  is  said  to  be  "closed." 
When  the  switch  is  opened,  or  the  path  broken,  the 
circuit  is  said  to  be  "open." 

Starting  at  the  pole  line  of  the  illuminating  com- 
pany, the  direct  current  supply  leaves  the  positive  wire, 
enters  the  building,  passes  through  the  meter,  the  switch 
and  fuses,  passes  through  the  rheostat,  through  the 
lamp,  and  back  to  the  negative  wire  of  the  pole  line. 
When  the  switch  or  fuses  open  the  circuit  is  opened, 
and  the  current  ceases  to  circulate.  On  its  return,  the 
current  passes  through  a  second  blade  of  the  switch,  so 
that  when  the  switch  is  pulled,  the  circuit  is  opened  on 
both  the  positive  and  negative  wires.  A  switch  that 
opens  both  the  positive  and  negative  lines  is  known  as 
a  "double  pole"  switch,  and  is  an  absolute  necessity 
if  the  circuit  is  to  be  entirely  disconnected  from  the 
supply  as  is  usually  the  case.  The  one  exception  is  in 
the  case  where  current  is  taken  from  a  street  railway 
circuit  where  only  a  single  pole  switch  is  used. 

The  meter  registers  the  amount  of  electrical  en- 
ergy taken  from  the  supply  mains  and  is  invariably  the 
property  of  the  illuminating  company.  It  registers  the 
current  in  terms  of  "kilo-watt  hours,"  this  unit  being  the 
product  of  the  voltage  by  the  current  in  amperes.  This 
is  then  further  multiplied  by  the  number  of  hours 
through  which  the  current  has  been  acting.  The  total 
product  is  then  divided  by  1,000.  Stated  as  a  formula 
this  will  be — 

FxAxH 

Kilo-watt  hours  (KWH.)  = 

1,000 

where  V  =  volts.  A  =  amperes,  and  H  =  no.  hours. 
The  fuses,  which  are  simply  strips  of  some  easily 
fused  metal  mounted  in  a  suitable  container,  form  a 
guard  against  excessive  currents  that  may  be  drawn 
through  an  accident  to  the  lamp,  rheostat,  or  wiring.  As 
the  fuses  have  a  much  lower  melting  temperature,  and 


158  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

have  a  smaller  diameter  than  the  copper  wiring,  a  heavy 
current  will  "blow"  them  out  before  it  has  had  an  op- 
portunity to  damage  the  rest  of  the  circuit.  In  other 
words,  the  fuses  are  simply  a  protective  device  installed 
for  the  purpose  of  saving  the  most  expensive  parts  of 
the  circuit,  the  fuse  being  a  form  of  automatic  switch. 
The  balance  of  the  circuit  has  been  already  described. 
After  the  fuses  have  been  blown,  and  the  trouble  located, 
they  may  be  easily  and  cheaply  replaced  by  others. 

WIRING  THE  BOOTH. 

All  wire  used  in  the  interior  of  the  building  is  cov- 
ered with  a  non-conducting  substance  such  as  rubber, 
or  a  saturated  braid  composed  of  fabric  and  a  compound 
such  as  kente  or  mineral  wax.  This  covering  is  known 
as  insulation,  and  is  for  the  purpose  of  confining  the 
current  to  the  copper  wire  that  it  protects.  If  bare  wire 
were  used  without  insulation  between  the  positive  and 
negative  wires,  a  "short  circuit"  would  be  formed,  that 
is,  the  current  would  pass  directly  from  one  wire  to  the 
other  without  doing  useful  work  in  the  lamp  house, 
providing,  of  course,  that  the  resistance  between  the 
wires  was  lower  than  that  of  the  lamp. 

Defective  insulation  is  one  of  the  most  common  of 
electrical  troubles,  and  is  a  continual  source  of  danger 
and  expense  until  it  is  repaired.  Leakage  of  the  cur- 
rent, however  slight,  increases  the  chances  of  fire,  and 
is  a  continual  expense  through  turning  the  meter  dur- 
ing the  idle  periods.  Besides  it  is  a  cause  of  annoyance 
to  the  operator  because  of  shocks  that  he  obtains  when 
operating  the  machine  or  in  making  connections. 

Nearly  all  authorities  require  an  insulation  that  is 
waterproof  and  which  burns  slowly  and  without  flame 
when  ignited  by  a  short  circuit  or  otherwise.  Protec- 
tion against  moisture  is  usually  provided  by  a  layer 
of  rubber,  while  the  protection  against  mechanical  in- 
jury and  fire  is  provided  by  an  outer  braid  saturated 
with  some  fairly  incombustible  compound.  A  cotton 
covered  or  paraffined  wire  should  never  be  used  on  a 
lighting  circuit. 

In  general,  there  are  two  methods  of  supporting 
house  wiring,  the  first  consisting  of  porcelain  cleats  or 
spools  that  raise  the  wires  from  the  surface  of  the 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          159 

wall  on  which  they  are  run;  the  second  (and  by  far  the 
best)  consisting  of  iron  pipes  through  which  are  passed 
both  wires  of  the  circuit.  The  second  method  is  used  in 
nearly  all  large  cities  where  the  regulations  are  severe. 
In  any  case,  the  wire  should  never  come  into  contact 
with  walls,  ceilings,  wood-work,  or  metal  parts  that  are 
connected  with  the  ground,  even  if  the  wires  are  perfect- 
ly protected  with  an  insulating  cover.  Disregard  of  this 
precaution  is  apt  to  result  in  a  fire. 

When  metal  tubing,  or  "conduit"  is  used  on  alter- 
nating circuits,  both  the  positive  and  negative  wires 
should  be  run  through  the  same  tube  to  prevent  trou- 
bles from  induction.  When  porcelain  insulators  are 
used  in  "open  wiring"  particular  care  should  be  taken 
to  have  the  wires  taut  and  straight  so  that  they  cannot 
sag  and  come  into  contact  with  the  wall  or  with  one 
another.  Where  open  or  porcelain  cleated  wires  pass 
through  a  wall,  they  should  be  protected  by  a  porce- 
lain tube  that  runs  through  the  entire  thickness  of  the 
wall. 

The  size  of  wire  used  on  any  circuit  depends  on 
the  number  of  amperes  to  be  carried  and  upon  the 
length  of  the  line,  and  also  to  a  certain  extent  upon  the 
nature  of  the  insulation.  The  voltage  has  no  direct 
bearing  on  the  cross-sectional  area,  when  the  current  is 
known.  With  equal  lengths,  the  capacity  of  wire  varies 
directly  with  the  cross-sectional  area  or  with  the  square 
of  the  diameter.  Thus  a  wire  of  twice  the  diameter  of 
another  has  four  times  the  capacity  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  following  example  in  which  one  wire  has  a  diam- 
eter of  ^-inch  and  the  other  a  diameter  of  ^4-inch — 

(y^'Y  :  (y*"Y  '•'•  capacity  1  :  capacity  2,  or 
1/16  :  Y^   : :  capacity  1   :  capacity  2. 

In  practice,  the  length  of  the  circuit  is  of  as  much 
importance  as  the  diameter  of  the  wire,  since  a  long  wire 
has  more  resistance,  and  therefore  reduces  the  voltage 
at  the  far  end  of  the  line  with  an  equal  current.  To 
overcome  the  effect  on  the  voltage  a  long  wire  must  be 
larger  in  diameter  than  a  short  one  with  an  equal  current 
in  amperes. 

The  exact  calculation  for  current  and  length  should 


160  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

be  performed  by  an  electrician  as  the  process  and  ex- 
planations that  are  connected  with  it  would  occupy  too 
much  space  in  this  volume.  The  minimum  size  of  wire 
permitted  under  any  conditions  is  a  No.  14  Brown  and 
Sharpe  gauge,  even  though  this  wire  would  figure  larger 
than  necessary  for  the  current. 

As  a  guide  in  selecting  short  wires,  (not  exceed- 
ing 15  feet  in  length)  we  will  add  the  following  table 
supplied  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

B.  &  S.                                                          Amperes  for  Amperes  for 
gauge.                                               Rubber  Covered  Wire.     Weather-Proof  Wire. 

No.   14  12  16 

No.   12  17  23 

No.   10  24  32 

No.     8  33  40 

No.     6  46  65 

No.     4  65  92 

No.     2  90  131 

No.     1  107  156 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  current  carrying  capacity  of 
rubber-covered  wire  is  much  less  than  a  weather-proof 
wire  of  the  same  size.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  rub- 
ber deteriorates  more  rapidly  than  the  weather-proof 
compound  with  equal  degrees  of  heat  caused  by  the 
passage  of  the  current.  Since  the  heat  generated  is  in 
direct  proportion  to  the  amperes  flowing,  the  rubber 
table  is  reduced  in  proportion  to  the  current.  Only  rub- 
ber-covered wire  should  be  used  in  the  interior  of  the 
theater,  the  weather-proof  being  allowed  only  on  open, 
out-of-door  lines. 

When  two  lengths  of  wire  are  to  be  spliced,  the 
insulation  should  be  completely  removed  from  the  ends 
of  both  wires  for  a  distance  of  from  2  to  3  inches.  The 
base  ends  should  now  be  thoroughly  scraped  until  the 
metal  is  bright  and  shining  and  with  no  trace  of  dirt 
or  compound.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  cut  or  nick 
the  wire  in  any  way  during  this  process.  The  base 
ends  should  now  be  tightly  wound  around  one  another 
in  a  close  neat  spiral  so  that  the  wires  bear  on  one  an- 
other in  close  contact  throughout  their  length.  The  joint 
should  now  be  heated  in  the  flame  of  a  gasoline  torch 
and  a  stick  of  solder  rubbed  back  and  forth  until  the 
wires  are  completely  united.  Never  make  a  joint  with- 
out soldering  it  thoroughly  for  a  simply  wrapped  joint 
will  oxydize,  heat  and  eventually  burn  off.  After  sol- 
dering, wrap  the  joint  with  several  layers  of  electrical 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 

tape,  starting  and  completing  the  wrapping  over  the 
rubber  insulation  on  either  side  of  the  base  conductor. 
The  tape  should  overlap  the  rubber  by  at  least  an  inch 
on  either  side. 

In  making  any  connection  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  contact  surfaces  must  be  perfectly  bright  and 
clean.  The  smallest  particle  of  dirt  between  the  two 
surfaces  decreases  the  area  of  contact  and  correspond- 
ingly increases  the  resistance  and  heat.  Loose  connec- 
tions have  the  same  effect.  Keep  all  binding  screws  as 
tight  as  possible,  and  make  a  practice  of  going  over  these 
joints  at  regular  intervals. 

THE   FILM. 

Owing  to  the  difference  in  the  mechanical  details 
of  the  many  machines  now  on  the  market  it  is  almost  an 
impossibility  to  give  an  exact  description  of  the  methods 
adopted  in  threading  the  film  through  the  motion  head 
that  will  apply  to  every  machine.  In  nearly  every  case, 
however,  the  film  is  wound  on  the  upper  reel  (before 
exhibiting)  by  first  inserting  the  end  of  the  film  under 
the  spring  clip  on  the  core  of  the  reel,  and  then  rotating 
the  reel  by  means  of  the  projector  mechanism  or  by  a 
separate  winding  device  called  a  "rewinder."  In  some 
cities  the  use  of  a  separate  rewinder  is  made  necessary 
by  an  ordinance  which  sometimes  requires  this  opera- 
tion to  be  carried  out  in  a  separate  room,  or  in  any  event, 
outside  of  the  operating  booth.  The  emulsion  side  of 
the  film  should  be  "in,"  that  is,  should  be  faced  towards 
the  interior  of  the  reel. 

When  the  reel  is  filled,  it  is  placed  in  the  upper 
magazine,  and  the  free  end  of  the  film  is  brought  out 
through  a  slot  in  the  bottom  of  the  magazine.  It  is 
now  brought  out  over  an  idler,  under  the  top  sprocket, 
and  from  there  is  placed  in  the  film  gate,  after  leaving 
a  loop  of  slack  film  above  the  gate.  The  top  sprocket 
which  is  driven  by  the  crank,  pulls  steadily  on  the  film 
and  unwinds  it  from  the  upper  feed  reel.  The  loose 
loop  prevents  the  intermittent  feed  from  jerking  the 
film  against  the  inertia  and  friction  of  the  reel  and  break- 
ing it  off  above  the  gate.  When  the  gate  is  closed,  the 
film  is  between  the  film  gate  and  the  framing  plate,  a 
spring-actuated  device  in  the  gate  holding  the  film 


162  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

against  the  framing  plate  in  front  of  the  aperture.  The 
friction  caused  by  the  springs  checks  the  momentum  of 
the  film  so  that  it  comes  to  rest  instantly  opposite  the 
aperture.  The  springs  rest  on  the  blank  margin  of  the 
film  and  the  entire  device  is  arranged  so  that  nothing 
comes  into  contact  with  the  film  in  the  picture  space, 
thus  avoiding  the  danger  of  scratches.  Owing  to  the 
inversion  of  the  lens,  the  film  pictures  should  be  placed 
so  that  they  are  upside  down  in  the  aperture,  with  the 
emulsion  side  towards  the  light. 

A  second  loop  is  now  formed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
gate,  between  the  gate  and  the  lower  take-up  sprocket. 
A  spring-controlled  idler  pulley  holds  the  film  firmly 
on  the  lower  sprocket.  After  passing  over  another  idler, 
the  film  is  led  to  the  lower  "take-up  reel,"  where  it  is 
fastened  to  the  core  of  the  reel  by  means  of  a  spring 
clip  similar  to  that  on  the  feed  reel.  The  machine  is 
now  ready  to  be  run. 

As  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  place  the  film  pic- 
tures in  correct  relation  to  the  aperture  or  feeding 
mechanism,  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  secure  this  ad- 
justment by  means  of  the  "framing  device"  which  brings 
the  picture  "into  frame"  or  into  the  correct  position  on 
the  screen  during  the  time  that  the  shutter  is  open. 
Framing  is  accomplished  in  different  ways  on  different 
machines,  but  is  usually  accomplished  by  raising  or  low- 
ering a  lever  on  the  motion  head,  that  raises  or  lowers 
the  aperture  plate. 

When  threading  the  machine,  the  greatest  of  care 
should  be  exercised  in  order  to  prevent  injury  to  the 
delicate  emulsion  surface.  Even  the  smallest  abrasions 
or  scratches  are  glaringly  apparent  on  the  screen  because 
of  the  great  magnification.  The  rapid  succession  of 
small  scratches  and  dirt  specks,  no  two  of  which  fall 
in  the  same  place  on  the  screen,  produce  what  is  known 
as  "rain,"  an  expression  that  describes  the  appearance 
of  such  a  film  very  clearly. 

Holding  the  film  between  the  fingers  when  rewind- 
ing, or  tightening  the  film  on  the  reel  by  pulling  at  the 
end  of  the  film  with  the  reel  held  stationary  are  the  two 
methods  that  most  commonly  result  in  rainy  films.  Car- 
bon dust  or  dust  from  the  interior  of  the  lamp  house 
are  also  common  causes  of  rain,  since  the  fine  particles 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  163 

embed  themselves  in  the  soft  emulsion.  Nothing  should 
touch  the  emulsion  surface,  especially  while  passing 
through  the  machine  or  in  rewinding.  "First-run"  film  is 
soft  and  is  especially  susceptible  to  friction  and  dirt. 

The  friction  of  the  tension  springs  in  the  gate  and 
the  rubbing  of  the  guide  rollers  and  sprocket  wheels  on 
the  margin  of  the  film  removes  a  considerable  amount 
of  emulsion  especially  with  first  run  films.  This  emul- 
sion dust  causes  much  trouble  and  should  be  removed 
at  short  intervals  to  prevent  film  scratches  and  mechani- 
cal troubles  that  often  arise  when  the  deposit  is  allowed 
to  accumulate.  Deposits  that  form  under  the  tension 
springs  should  be  removed  after  each  run  to  prevent 
spring-jumping  and  slippage. 

DRY  FILM. 

Before  leaving  the  developing  rooms  of  the  film 
producer,  the  emulsion  is  charged  with  a  small  amount  of 
emulsion  soft  and  pliable.  After  a  time  in  service,  the 
glycerine  which  keeps  the  gelatine  component  of  the 
glycerine  finally  evaporates  and  the  film  again  becomes 
harsh  and  brittle.  The  evaporation  of  the  glycerine  is, 
of  course,  hastened  by  heat,  and  for  this  reason  the  film 
should  never  be  stored  in  a  warm  place,  especially  near 
the  ceiling  of  the  operating  booth.  A  considerable 
amount  of  moisture  should  be  supplied  to  keep  the  film 
in  its  best  condition.  At  the  present  time  there  are  spe- 
cial sheet-metal  film  containers  on  the  market  that  are 
built  on  the  principles  of  the  well-known  "humidors" 
used  for  the  storage  of  cigars.  These  devices  are  cir- 
cular metal  cans,  just  large  enough  to  receive  a  reel  of 
film,  and  are  provided  with  a  perforated  metal  bottom 
that  covers  a  sponge  or  other  absorbent  material.  A 
small  amount  of  water  in  the  sponge  supplies  the  neces- 
sary moisture  to  the  film  without  danger  of  wetting  the 
emulsion. 

When  the  film  is  dry  it  may  be  moistened  by  un- 
winding it  into  a  large  can,  such  as  a  milk  or  garbage 
can,  that  is  provided  with  a  false  bottom  of  wire  screen- 
ing. The  wire  screen  is  raised  two  or  three  inches  from 
the  bottom  of  the  can,  or  high  enough  to  accommodate 
a  shallow  pan  of  water  that  is  to  be  placed  beneath  the 
screen.  The  cover  is  now  placed  on  the  can,  and  the  film 


!64  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

is  left  in  the  moisture  for  a  period  of  an  hour  to  half  a 
day,  depending  on  the  condition  of  the  film.  If  the 
film  is  left  on  the  reel,  it  will  require  a  considerable 
length  of  time  for  the  moisture  to  penetrate  to  the  cen- 
ter of  the  reel.  In  any  case  do  not  allow  the  film  to  be- 
come too  moist. 

The  manufacturers  and  film  exchanges  often  "re- 
bathe"  the  film  in  a  three  per  cent  solution  of  glycerine  in 
water.  This  process,  however,  is  usually  beyond  the 
capabilities  of  the  exhibitor  or  private  film  owner,  as 
handling  a  thousand  feet  of  wet  film  is  no  easy  matter 
unless  one  is  equipped  with  the  proper  devices.  The 
manufacturer  winds  the  film  on  large  squirrel  cage  drums 
and  then  rotates  the  film  through  a  glycerine  bath  con- 
tained in  a  shallow  tray.  The  tray  is  then  removed,  and 
the  cage  rapidly  rotated  until  the  film  is  perfectly  dry. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  in  handling  a  wet  film  for 
the  emulsion  is  very  soft,  about  the  consistency  of  jelly, 
and  is  easily  damaged  by  even  the  slightest  contact.  Dust 
adheres  firmly  to  the  wet  collodion,  and  when  once  im- 
bedded is  almost  impossible  to  remove. 

Should  a  film  be  wet  accidentally,  it  should  be  im- 
mediately unrolled,  and  either  stretched  or  wrapped 
around  some  cylindrical  object  such  as  a  barrel  or  patent 
clothes-reel.  In  any  case  the  emulsion  side  should  be 
turned  outwardly  so  that  it  will  not  come  into  contact 
with  the  surface  on  which  it  is  wound.  The  unrolling 
should  be  performed  very  carefully  to  prevent  injury  to 
the  emulsion.  Do  not  release  the  tension  until  the  film  is 
bone  dry  to  prevent  it  from  curling  and  winding. 

LEADERS. 

A  piece  of  blank  film,  or  title,  of  from  two  to  four 
feet  in  lenghth,  is  attached  to  the  beginning  of  a  film  to 
allow  for  threading  the  machine.  This  is  known  as  the 
"leader."  The  length  of  the  leader  should  be  greater 
than  the  distance  from  the  feed  reel  to  the  take-up  reel 
so  that  the  crank  may  be  turned  through  a  couple  of 
revolutions  before  the  body  of  the  film  enters  the  gate. 
If  the  leader  is  too  short,  there  will  be  equivalent  loss 
of  title  in  threading,  making  it  almost  impossible  for 
the  audience  to  determine  the  name  of  the  play.  In  at- 
taching a  new  leader  to  a  film  care  should  be  taken  to 
have  it  in  frame  with  the  rest  of  the  film. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING' AND   EXHIBITING 


165 


As  the  leader  is  not  projected  on  the  screen  it  can 
be  made  from  any  old  piece  of  film  that  is  in  good  con- 
dition in  regard  to  the  sprocket  holes. 

A  "tail  piece,"  similar  to  the  leader  should  be  at- 
tached to  the  end  of  the  film,  and  should  be  at  least  long 
enough  to  reach  from  the  feed  to  the  take-up  reel  so  that 
the  body  of  the  film  will  be  on  the  take-up  before  the 
tail  piece  ends  on  the  feed  reel. 

PATCHING  THE   FILM. 

A  properly  made  patch  or  mend  is  of  the  greatest 
importance,  for  the  continual  parting  and  jumping 
caused  by  imperfect  work  is  a  source  of  annoyance  to 
the  audience  and  a  cause  of  loss  to  the  exhibitor.  Prop- 
erly made,  a  patch  is  nearly  as  strong  as  the  film  on 
which  it  is  placed,  and  will  run  nearly  as  true. 

The  first  require- 
ment is  that  the 
sprocket  holes  be- 
tween the  two  ends 
of  the  film  shall  be 
spaced  at  the  exact 
standard  distance,  so 
that  the  patch  will 
pass  over  the  sprock- 
ets without  jumping. 
The  edges  of  the  two 
halves  of  the  film 
must  coincide  exact- 
ly, and  must  be  in  the 
same  straight  line  so 
that  the  film  will  run 
true  through  the  gate 
and  wind  evenly  on 
the  reel.  The  ce- 
mented surfaces  must 
be  perfectly  clean 
and  in  full  contact 
with  one  another,  a 
condition  that  de- 
pends on  thorough 
scraping  and  heavy 
clamp  pressure. 


Fig.  SO.     Proper  Way  to  Splice. 


Mending  the  film  is  a  very  simple  operation,  but  it 


166 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 


is  usually  done  so  hurriedly  that  the  patch  opens  up 
sooner  than  if  it  was  done  right.  The  operator  should 
have  a  pair  of  small  scissors  to  cut  the  film,  a  sharp  knife 
to  scrape  off  the  emulsion,  and  good  film  cement.  Most 

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Fig.   51.      Showing   Proper   (Left)    and   Improper    (Right)    Film    Splices. 

film  cement  is  put  up  in  bottles  having  a  small  brush 
fitted  into  the  cork.  In  this  way  the  bottle  is  always 
kept  tightly  corked  and  the  brush  for  applying  the  ce- 
ment is  always  at  hand  and  in  condition  to  use. 

To  patch  the  film  so  that  no  frame-up  will  be  neces- 
sary when  it  passes  through  the  machine  cut  off  one 
picture  on  dividing  line  A-A,  and  the  picture  below  at 
C-C  one  sprocket  hole  above  the  dividing  line  (Fig.  51). 
Moisten  flap  A-A,  B-B,  with  water  and  scrape  the  emul- 
sion off  with  the  knife  blade.  Be  sure  to  get  it  all  off  as 


MOTION   PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING          167 

the  cement  will  not  stick  to  the  old  emulsion.  Now 
scrape  off  back  of  C-C,  D-D,  to  remove  the  grease  or 
dirt  on  it.  Apply  the  film  cement  liberally  on  flap  A- A, 
B-B,  where  it  has  been  scraped,  and  lay  part  C-C,  D-D 
on  top,  being  careful  to  see  that  the  sprocket  holes  come 
directly  over  each  other.  The  best  way  is  to  match  the 
holes  on  one  side,  holding  it  with  the  thumb  and  one 
finger;  then  match  the  other  sprocket  holes  and  press 
the  whole  joint  together  and  rub  firmly  with  the  thumb 
and  finger.  All  this  must  be  done  very  quickly  as  the 
cement  dries  rapidly,  and  when  once  dry,  and  the  film 
does  not  stick,  it  must  be  scraped  off  again  and  tried 
over.  If  a  larger  flap  than  one  sprocket  hole  is  used  the 
film  at  the  patch  becomes  too  stiff  and  in  going  over  the 
round  sprockets  the  patch  will  open  up.  After  com- 
pleting the  patch  cement  the  edges  down  by  running 
the  brush  over  them,  as  that  is  always  the  first  part  of 
the  patch  to  open  up. 

JUMPING  AND  SWAYING  FILM. 

A  very  slight  difference  in  the  position  of  the  suc- 
cessive pictures  in  regard  to  the  aperture  and  the  shut- 
ter makes  a  very  considerable  difference  in  their  posi- 
tion on  the  screen  owing  to  the  magnification  of  the  lens. 
Since  the  film  picture  is  often  magnified  240  times  it 
is  evident  that  a  difference  of  1/100  of  an  inch  in  the 
position  of  the  pictures  amounts  to  240/100  =  2.40  inch 
on  the  screen,  a  displacement  that  is  very  apparent  to 
the  audience,  and  one  that  is  very  annoying. 

Pictures  that  are  out  of  register  may  be  caused  by 
any  or  all  of  the  following  defects  in  the  film : 

( 1 )  Worn  sprocket  holes. 

(2)  Dry  film,  whose  shrinkage  has  caused  the 

sprocket  holes  to  come  too  close  to- 
gether or  run  out  of  alignment. 

(3)  Poorly  made  patches. 

(4)  Curled  film. 

In  addition  to  the  film  defects,  jumping  and  sway- 
ing may  be  caused  by  defects  in  the  projector  mechan- 
ism, such  as  worn  sprocket  teeth,  loose  shutter,  loose 
lens,  glasses  or  tube,  worn  intermittent  movement,  or 
to  the  machine  rocking  on  the  floor  while  being  cranked. 
Deposits  of  emulsion  dust  under  the  tension  springs  will 


168 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 


also  cause  jumping.     The  lens  and  its  mounting  should 
be  examined  occasionally  and  tightened. 

THE   MOTION    HEAD. 

Because  of  the  great  difference  in  the  construction 
of  the  various  motion  heads  now  on  the  market,  I  will 
attempt  only  the  most  general  of  hints  in  regard  to  their 
care.  To  describe  all  of  the  makes,  as  well  as  the  num- 


Fig.  52.     Examining  Film  to  see  if  properly  spliced. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          169 

her  of  types  that  have  been  produced  from  time  to  time 
by  each  maker  would  require  far  more  space  than  I 
have  at  my  disposal,  and  would  serve  no  useful  purpose. 
Accurate  descriptions  and  directions  for  the  operation 
of  these  machines  may  be  obtained  from  their  makers, 
gratis. 

Cleanliness  and  careful  lubrication  are  among  the 
most  important  factors  in  the  operation  of  a  projector. 
Dirt  and  dust  abrade  the  wearing  surfaces  of  the  deli- 
cate part  and  hasten  the  end  of  the  machine's  life.  The 
effects  of  dirt  are  more  noticeable  on  a  projector  than 
on  almost  any  other  machine  owing  to  the  delicacy  of 
the  adjustments  and  the  closeness  of  the  fits.  Lack  of 
oil  also  destroys  the  wearing  surfaces,  with  even  greater 
rapidity  than  dirt. 

Excessive  oiling  is  to  be  avoided,  however,  as  care- 
fully as  the  other  extreme,  for  a  projector  dripping  with 
oil  is  not  only  mussy  and  increases  the  amount  of  dirt  col- 
lected, but  is  likely  to  ruin  the  film  by  throwing  oil  spray 
into  the  gate  and  magazines.  A  good  grade  of  medium 
gravity  oil  should  be  used  and  should  be  applied  spar- 
ingly and  often,  a  drop  at  a  time.  All  of  the  working 
parts  should  be  flushed  out  occasionally  with  gasoline  to 
remove  the  gum  and  sediment  left  by  the  repeated  oil- 
ings.  Wipe  carefully  into  all  of  the  corners  and  crevices 
with  an  old  cloth  that  is  free  from  lint  and  make  sure 
that  no  metallic  particles  or  grit  remain. 

There  must  be  no  lost  motion  between  the  parts  of 
the  intermittent  motion,  particularly  between  the  star 
and  wheel,  for  lost  motion  at  this  point  is  one  of  the 
most  common  causes  of  jumping.  In  taking  up  the  lost 
motion  between  the  star  and  wheel  be  sure  that  there 
is  no  binding,  just  an  even  free  motion  without  appreci- 
able "back-lash"  or  play. 

This  adjustment  is  made  in  the  majority  of  ma- 
chines by  means  of  an  eccentric  bushing  on  the  inter- 
mittent shaft.  The  hole  for  the  shaft  made  in  the  bush- 
ing is  slightly  out  of  center  with  the  hole  in  which  the 
bushing  fits  so  that  by  rotating  the  bushing  it  is  possible 
to  raise  or  lower  the  wheel  in  regard  to  the  star.  After 
adjustment  the  bronze  bushing  is  held  securely  in  place 
by  means  of  set  screws.  When  the  bushings  become 


170  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 

worn  they  should  be  immediately  replaced  with  new 
bushings. 

When  the  shaft  is  supported  by  more  than  one  ec- 
centric bushing  care  should  be  taken  to  turn  them  both 
through  exactly  the  same  angle.  If  this  is  not  done,  the 
shaft  of  the  star  and  that  of  the  wheel  will  be  no  longer 
parallel,  which  will  cause  binding  to  take  place  between 
the  two  engaging  surfaces. 

The  pin  and  star  should  be  watched  carefully  for 
wear  and  should  be  replaced  as  soon  as  lost  or  irregular 
motion  becomes  apparent.  While  these  parts  are  made 
of  carefully  tempered  steel  they  will  wear  in  time  and 
will  eventually  cause  jumping. 

FIRE  ROLLERS. 

To  prevent  the  flame  of  an  ignited  film  from  enter- 
ing the  upper  magazine,  the  outlet  is  provided  with  two 
sets  of  fire  rollers  and  a  connecting  trap  between  which 
the  film  passes  on  its  way  from  the  magazine.  Should 
the  flame  creep  up  to  the  outlet,  the  pressure  of  the  rol- 
lers on  the  film  would  smother  the  flame. 

The  rollers  should  be  kept  free  from  deposits  of 
emulsion  dust  to  prevent  scratches  or  an  increased  danger 
of  fire.  This  dust  also  tends  to  clog  the  rollers  and  hold 
them  open. 

CARE  OF  THE   UPPER   FEED   SPROCKET. 

The  upper  feed  sprocket  which  pulls  the  film  from 
the  upper  feed  reel  is  generally  in  the  form  of  a  hollow 
drum,  equal  in  width  to  the  width  of  the  film.  At  either 
end  of  the  sprocket  are  inserted  the  sprocket  teeth  that 
engage  in  the  sprocket  holes  on  the  margin  of  the  film. 
These  teeth  are  generally  set  in  the  center  of  a  raised 
ring  that  corresponds  to  the  width  of  the  film  margin  and 
which  raises  the  picture  space  from  the  face  of  the  sproc- 
ket drum.  On  several  types  of  projectors,  flanges  are 
provided  at  the  ends  of  the  sprocket  to  prevent  the  film 
from  jumping. 

One  or  more  rollers  are  placed  next  to  the  sprock- 
et, which  hold  the  film  on  the  sprocket  and  in  engage- 
ment with  the  teeth.  These  guide  rollers  are  hinged 
on  a  spring  bracket  so  that  they  may  be  dropped  out  of 
the  way  when  threading  the  projector,  and  are  also  pro- 
vided with  an  adjustment  by  which  the  distance  of  the 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING          171 

guide  roller  from  the  sprocket  may  be  regulated.  This 
roller  should  be  about  two  thicknesses  of  film  from  the 
face  of  the  sprocket  to  prevent  the  film  from  climbing  or 
jumping  over  the  teeth.  If  the  rollers  were  to  bear  the 
film  directly  on  the  sprocket,  the  film  would  be  likely  to 
climb,  especially  at  the  time  of  a  passing  patch. 

All  emulsion  dust  and  dirt  should  be  removed  from 
the  sprocket  as  fast  as  it  is  deposited,  that  is,  at  the  end 
of  every  run;  if  this  is  not  done  regularly,  the  deposit 
will  increase  until  it  reaches  and  scratches  the  surface  of 
the  film.  The  teeth  of  the  sprocket  should  be  examined 
for  wear,  and  if  worn  or  ridged,  the  entire  sprocket 
should  be  replaced  by  a  new  one  to  prevent  trouble  from 
climbing  or  jumping. 

THE  INTERMITTENT   SPROCKET. 

The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  care  of  the  intermit- 
tent sprocket  in  regard  to  dirt  or  wear,  but  it  should  be 
remembered  that  even  greater  care  is  necessary  in  the 
case  of  the  intermittent  as  it  has  a  more  direct  influence 
on  the  steadiness  of  the  projection.  The  intermittent 
pulling  of  the  latter  sprocket  wears  small  cuts  on  the 
under  side  of  the  teeth  which  cause  occasional  slips  and 
mis-frames  of  the  film. 

The  dust  may  be  easily  removed  from  the  teeth  of 
the  sprocket  by  means  of  a  small  stiff  tooth  brush. 
Jumping  is  often  caused  by  accumulations  of  dust  that 
become  packed  on  the  surface  by  the  continual  passage 
of  the  film. 

CARE  OF  THE  GATE  AND  TENSION  SPRINGS. 

The  purpose  of  the  gate  and  tension  springs  has 
already  been  described  in  this  and  preceding  chapters. 
In  this  article  we  will  confine  our  attention  to  its  care 
and  maintenance. 

At  the  top  of  the  gate  is  a  guide  roller  for  feeding 
the  film  as  it  comes  from  the  upper  loop  so  that  it  does 
not  slip  to  one  side  of  the  springs  in  passing  through  the 
gate.  The  roller  is  generally  held  in  position  on  the 
spindle  with  a  light  coil  spring  allowing  a  very  small 
sidewise  movement  of  the  film.  On  some  machines  this 
roller  is  made  in  two  parts. 

The  film  now  passes  between  the  tension  spring  of 
the  gate  and  the  aperture  plate.  The  tension  springs 
are  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  machine. 


172          MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

Their  duties  are  two  in  number;  to  flatten  the  film 
against  the  aperture-plate,  and  to  keep  the  film  station- 
ary while  being  projected.  The  film  when  being  pulled 
down  by  the  intermittent  sprocket  always  has  a  tendency 
to  keep  moving  after  the  intermittent  movement  has  come 
to  rest.  The  pressure  of  the  springs  overcomes  this  mo- 
tion, keeping  the  film  still  while  being  projected,  thus 
insuring  a  steadier  picture  on  the  screen. 

These  springs  usually  consist  of  thin  strips  of  hard- 
ened steel.  To  secure  an  absolutely  sharp  picture  all 
over  the  entire  screen  the  film  must  be  absolutely  in  one 
plane,  or  in  other  words  flat  against  the  plate.  Film 
always  has  a  tendency  to  curl  up  and  the  springs  must 
exert  enough  pressure  on  the  film  to  straighten  it.  The 
springs  can  be  made  to  bear  more  tightly  against  the  film 
by  driving  the  screw  on  which  the  gate  latch  is  fastened 
further  in.  This  in  reality  brings  the  whole  gate  closer 
to  the  plate  when  the  gate  is  closed.  This  adjustment 
is  not  as  even  as  it  might  be,  as  the  hinged  side  remains 
stationary. 

The  spring  must  be  watched  for  wear,  as  the  film 
wears  long  grooves  in  them,  and  they  should  be  re- 
newed when  in  this  condition,  or  the  film  will  not  be  in 
one  plane  as  before  mentioned.  Do  not  tighten  the 
springs  so  hard  that  the  machine  runs  hard,  as  this  will 
only  cause  undue  wear  on  them.  If  the  intermittent 
movement  is  in  correct  adjustment  the  springs  will  not 
have  to  be  too  tight  to  obtain  a  steady  picture. 

Tension  springs  should  be  kept  clean  from  any  gela- 
tine which  may  come  from  the  film.  This  is  especially 
true  of  new  film.  Wipe  the  springs  off  with  a  rag  that 
hns  been  dampened  in  oil. 

The  cooling  plate  on  the  front  of  the  gate  absorbs 
all  of  the  heat  from  the  light  which  does  not  go  through 
the  aperture.  This  plate  being  about  J4  of  an  inch  from 
the  gate  shields  it  from  the  heat,  thereby  reducing  dan- 
ger from  fire. 

The  aperture  plate  against  which  the  tension  springs 
press  the  film  usually  has  two  tracks  on  it  about  the 
width  of  the  tension  springs  and  slightly  elevated  above 
the  surface  of  the  plate.  In  this  way  the  springs  press 
only  the  edges  of  the  film,  or  that  part  on  which  the 
sprocket  holes  are,  against  the  plate.  Thus  the  surface 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  173 

of  the  film  does  not  touch  the  plate  itself  and  will  not  be 
scratched  up  in  passing  over  it. 

The  constant  pressure  of  the  tension  springs  press- 
ing the  film  against  the  plate  has  a  tendency  to  wear  the 
tracks  of  the  plate.  Especially  when  the  springs  are 
short  a  depression  is  worn  on  that  part  of  the  track  on 
each  side  of  the  aperture.  When  the  track  becomes  worn 
in  this  way  a  new  plate  should  be  installed  as  a  sharp 
focus  cannot  be  obtained  with  a  plate  in  this  condition. 

THE  TAKE-UP. 

The  take-up  mechanism  rotates  the  take-up  reel  on 
which  the  film  is  wound  after  passing  through  the  gate. 

A  take-up  will  work  satisfactorily  if  a  little  atten- 
tion is  given  to  it  occasionally.  During  the  beginning  of 
the  reel  the  take  up  reel  must  revolve  very  much  faster 
than  at  the  end,  on  account  of  the  size  of  the  reel.  For 
this  reason  a  friction  drive  is  necessary.  A  belt  or  a 
coil  spring  generally  drives  the  pulley  on  the  take-up 
from  the  pulley  on  the  machine.  The  belt  must  be  kept 
tight  enough  to  positively  pull  the  reel,  but  a  belt  too  tight 
will  not  work  satisfactory,  as  it  will  not  slip  easily  when 
the  lower  reel  is  almost  full.  The  belt  must  be  cleaned 
occasionally  as  dirt  and  oil  from  the  machine  are  liable 
to  get  on  it.  On  the  Motiograph  the  flat  take-up  belt  is 
adjusted  by  an  idler.  On  the  Power's,  Edison,  and  the 
other  machines  the  spiral  spring  on  the  shaft  tightens 
the  tension. 

THE   SHUTTER. 

The  shutter  is  primarily  designed  to  cut  off  the 
light  from  the  lens  while  the  film  is  in  motion.  It  can  be 
seen  that  for  a  fraction  of  a  second  the  illumination  will 
be  cut  off  from  the  screen.  This  dark  streak  across  the 
screen,  if  it  occurs  in  intervals  far  enough  apart,  will  be 
very  noticeable  to  the  eyes.  If  we  turn  the  crank  fast 
enough  this  flicker  can  be  overcome,  but  the  action  on  the 
picture  would  be  too  rapid  to  be  natural.  Therefore,  a 
second  blade  or  interrupter  has  been  added  to  the  shutter. 

The  black  interruptions  now  occur  twice  as  often  as 
before  and  are  consequently  not  as  noticeable.  In  order 
to  reduce  the  flicker  still  further  the  three-blade  exterior 
shutter  has  been  designed.  In  this  type  one  blade  cuts 
off  the  light  while  the  intermittent  is  in  motion  and  two 


174  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

interrupter  blades  cut  off  the  light  while  the  film  is  at 
rest.  This  naturally  results  in  quite  a  loss  of  illumina- 
tion as  the  light  is  cut  off  from  the  lens  about  one-half 
of  the  time.  This  style  of  shutter  is  desirable  when  a 
short  focus  lens  is  used.  The  exterior  shutter  should 
always  be  placed  as  close  to  the  lens  as  possible. 

When  using  alternating  current  of  60  cycles,  the 
three-blade  exterior  shutter  sometimes  proves  objection- 
able, owing  to  the  fact  that  at  times  the  alternation  of  the 
current  is  liable  to  run  synchronously  with  the  interrup- 
tions of  the  shutter  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  light 
on  the  picture  to  flare  up  and  down.  In  this  case  the 
interior  shutter  must  be  used  as  it  has  but  one  interrup- 
ter. In  the  interior  shutter  the  interrupter  blade  is  made 
as  narrow  as  possible  so  as  not  to  cut  off  two  much 
illumination. 

When  white  streaks  follow  white  objects  (called 
"travel  ghost")  on  the  screen,  as  for  instance  in  a  white 
title  against  a  black  background,  you  may  know  that  your 
shutter  is  not  in  correct  adjustment.  Setting  the  shutter 
is  comparatively  easy  if  you  keep  the  object  of  it  in 
mind.  To  set  the  shutter  it  must  first  revolve  loosely 
on  the  shaft.  Then  get  one  of  the  film  pictures  exactly 
in  frame  by  looking  through  the  aperture.  Turn  it 
around  until  the  pin  starts  to  enter  the  star  wheel ;  then 
the  wide  blade  of  the  shutter  should  begin  to  cover  the 
aperture. 

Another  method  of  setting  the  shutter  is  as  follows : 
Turn  the  machine  over  until  the  dividing  line  between 
two  of  the  pictures  is  exactly  half  way  across  the  aper- 
ture. Draw  a  center  line  across  the  wide  blade  of  the 
shutter,  loosen  the  shutter,  and  turn  it  so  that  the  center 
line  is  exactly  in  the  center  of  the  aperture,  or  horizontal. 
This  is  the  correct  shutter  position.  Tighten  the  shutter 
on  the  shaft.  In  both  the  cases  just  mentioned,  the 
framing  device  should  be  central  before  attempting  to 
set  the  shutter. 

STARTING  THE  PROJECTION. 

Always  start  the  machine  very  slowly  especially 
with  a  short  leader  or  title,  to  prevent  the  audience  from 
losing  the  title. 

After  threading  up  the  film,  before  turning  on  the 
light,  look  through  the  aperture  to  see  if  the  picture  is 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          175 

in  frame.  In  this  way  you  will  not  have  to  frame  up  or 
down  as  soon  as  the  light  strikes  the  film;  it  makes  a 
better  impression  on  the  audience  if  the  picture  starts 
right  at  the  beginning.  If  the  title  is  short,  as  it  usually 
is,  this  is  doubly  necessary  as  too  much  title  and  time  is 
spent  in  framing  up.  If  the  lever  is  in  the  middle  of  its 
travel  it  will  be  easier  to  move  it  up  and  down  than  if 
it  is  at  the  top  or  bottom. 

To  save  trouble  during  the  performance,  the  opera- 
tor should  carefully  examine  the  film  before  starting  the 
projection.  All  loose  patches,  short  leaders,  and  broken 
sprocket  holes  should  be  repaired. 

REWINDERS. 

The  use  of  rewinders  is  compulsory  in  many  cities, 
and  is  always  desirable  in  any  case.  It  can  be  used  in 
a  separate  room  or  in  the  operator's  booth  according  to 
the  local  requirements. 

A  machine  of  this  type  consists  of  a  case  30  inches 
long,  15  inches  high,  and  3  inches  wide,  and  is  made  of 
1-16  inch  seamless  sheet  steel.  A  flange  door  makes  the 
case  absolutely  fire  proof  when  closed.  By  an  ingenious 
arrangement  the  reel  spool  is  placed  on  a  central  shaft 
where  it  is  permanently  locked  by  a  spring  attachment 
from  turning.  When  the  door  of  the  case  is  tightly 
closed  and  latched,  a  lug  on  the  door  presses  the  spool 
down  and  engages  it  with  a  locking  device  on  the  motor 
drive  mechanism,  and  it  is  only  then  that  the  spool  can 
be  revolved. 

When  the  door  of  the  case  is  tightly  latched,  the 
entire  case  is  necessarily  fireproof  and  since  the  rewind- 
ing can  only  be  done  with  the  door  latched  there  is  no 
opportunity  for  carlessness  to  cause  a  fire. 

A  small  motor  is  gauged  to  a  speed  which  will  tight- 
ly rewind  all  film  1,000  feet  per  minute  without  further 
attention  and  the  company  claims  the  entire  cost  of  such 
rewinding  for  the  average  theater  will  not  exceed  five 
cents  per  week. 

STEREOPTICON   AND  SONG  SLIDES. 

To  get  a  sharp  picture  evenly  illuminated  all  over 
the  entire  screen,  the  centers  of  the  condenser  and  pro- 
jection lenses  should  be  in  the  same  straight  line.  When 
the  center  of  the  lenses  is  very  much  higher  than  the  cen- 


176  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

ter  of  the  screen  a  keystone  picture  results,  that  is  a 
picture  with  the  top  wider  than  the  bottom.  This  can 
be  corrected  by  tilting  the  bottom  of  the  screen  forward. 
Another  way  to  correct  this  is  to  make  a  mask  or  mat  of 
sheet  metal  with  the  bottom  wider  than  the  top.  This 
keystone  mask  should  be  fitted  in  front  of  the  slide  car- 
rier. The  slope  of  the  sides  will  counteract  the  lines  on 
the  screen  producing  a  picture  whose  sides  form  a  per- 
fect rectangle  on  the  screen.  This  mask  must  be  care- 
fully made  the  slope  of  the  sides  having  the  same  angle 
as  those  of  the  picture. 

In  running  slides  with  a  single  lantern  it  is  not  very 
pleasing  to  see  a  slide  move  sideways  across  the  screen 
and  another  take  its  place.  For  this  reason  the  light  is 
generally  cut  off  from  the  lens  while  the  slide  is  being 
changed.  If  the  "dowser"  or  light  shutter  is  attached  to 
the  condenser  mount  it  may  be  dropped  in  front  of  the 
condensers  when  changing  slides.  An  ordinary  round 
fan  attached  to  the  wall  below  the  projection  lens  will 
serve  to  cut  off  the  light  while  changing  slides.  Grasp 
the  fan  by  the  handle  and  flit  it  quickly  across  the  lens, 
while  moving  the  slide.  The  slip-slide  carrier  is  some- 
times used.  In  changing,  one  slide  is  pushed  past  the 
other  one  causing  a  blur  on  the  screen. 

Most  city  ordinances  require  that  the  slide  carrier 
be  made  of  metal  instead  of  wood.  Small  knobs  should 
be  fastened  to  each  side  of  the  carrier,  so  that  it  may  be 
pushed  or  pulled  as  the  case  may  be,  making  it  unneces- 
sary for  the  operator  to  reach  over  the  light  to  move  the 
carrier.  When  removing  the  slide  and  dropping  in  a  new 
one  be  careful  that  you  do  not  shake  the  slide  carrier 
causing  the  slide  to  jiggle  on  the  screen. 

To  obtain  the  best  results  in  running  slides  you  must 
have  a  dissolver.  Passable  results  may  be  produced  with 
various  devices  to  cut  off  or  dim  the  light  while  changing 
the  slides,  but  the  double  lamp  dissolver  is  the  best. 

In  the  double  dissolver  the  equipment  of  both  lamps 
must  be  the  same.  Each  lamp  should  have  a  separate 
rheostat  so  that  the  resistance  in  each  line  is  the  same, 
giving  each  lamp  the  same  amount  of  current.  The  con- 
densers should  have  the  same  focal  length  so  that  the 
circle  of  light  will  be  the  same  at  the  projection  lens 
opening,  when  both  lamps  are  at  the  same  distance  from 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 


177 


the  lens.  The  lower  lantern  should  be  equipped  with  a 
double  slide  carrier,  so  that  it  may  be  used  for  running 
the  slides  alone  in  case  the  upper  lantern  becomes  out  of 
order. 

It  is  very  necessary  when  dissolving  that  the  out- 
side lines  of  the  pictures  remain  in  the  same  straight 
line.  This  is  impossible  with  the  ordinary  song  slides  as 
the  mats  on  the  slides  are  not  always  placed  the  same. 
For  this  reason  each  carrier  should  be  provided  with  a 
mask  or  mat  having  an  opening  slightly  smaller  than  that 
of  the  slide  mat.  These  masks  should  be  lined  up  care- 
fully and  secured  to  the  carrier  and  better  results  will 
be  obtained. 

The  speed  with  which  the  dissolver  lever  should  be 
operated  depends  very  much  on  the  slides.  In  changing 
views  that  are  very  dissimilar  a  quick  movement  of  the 
lever  is  desirable,  but  where  the  scene  changes  but  slightly 
the  lever  may  be  operated  more  slowly.  Considering 
the  general  run  of  song  slides  it  is  better  for  the  opera- 
tor to  work  the  dissolving  lever  faster  than  he  usually 
does. 

Not  the  least  in  producing  good  results  is  the  pro- 
jection lens.  In  order  to  get  a  picture  whose  corners  are 
not  yellow  a  half  size  lens  should  be  used  for  all  lenses 
over  ten  inches  equivalent  focal  length. 

The  various  slides  should  be  kept  in  a  long  box  with 
compartments  furnished  for  the  purpose.  In  this  way 
an  air  space  is  around  each  slide  giving  it  an  opportunity 
to  cool  off.  The  danger  of  breakage  is  also  reduced. 

In  running  the  slides  each  one  should  be  placed  in 
the  same  position  on  the  table  so  that  they  may  be  picked 
up  and  dropped  in  the  carrier  without  looking  at  each  one 
before  dropping  it  in.  This  is  especially  necessary  when 
running  with  a  dissolver,  as  two  scenes  somewhat  simi- 
lar following  each  other  a  certain  bit  of  landscape  may 
jump  from  one  side  of  the  screen  to  the  other. 

All  of  the  slides  should  be  cleaned  each  evening 
before  the  show  by  rubbing  them  off  with  wood  alcohol 
using  a  clean  rag.  Care  must  be  taken  when  changing 
the  slides  so  that  the  slide  is  touched  only  on  the  border 
and  not  in  the  middle,  as  a  finger  print  will  surely  be 
left  on  the  slide.  This  is  objectionable,  to  say  the  least. 

In  many  shows  a  spot-light  is  used  for  the  singer. 


178 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 


The  audience  will  usually  pay  more  attention  to  the 
singer  and  the  song  if  a  spot-light  or  some  other  illumi- 
nation is  used  on  the  singer  than  if  the  house  is  in  a 
darkened  condition. 

The  round  spot  is  probably  the  best  to  use.  A  spot 
can  be  made  for  the  head  only  or  for  the  whole  figure. 
There  are  various  ways  to  make  spots.  A  glass  slide  is 
sometimes  used.  Cut  out  a  circle  from  black  paper, 
making  the  hole  about  three-quarters  to  one  inch  in 
diameter,  being  sure  to  cut  the  edges  sharp  otherwise 
the  spot  will  be  fuzzy.  Place  the  paper  between  two 
slides  and  bind  temporarily.  Place  the  slide  in  the  car- 
rier and  locate  the  spot  correctly  with  reference  to  the 
singer's  position  on  the  stage.  Then  bind  it  permanently. 
This  slide  will  not  stand  much  heat  and  if  a  spot  is 
used  steadily,  one  made  of  tin  or  sheet  metal  will  serve 
the  purpose  better.  If  a  tin  slide  is  used  the  top  of  it 
can  be  hinged  to  the  top  of  the  condenser  mount  and 
when  not  in  use  it  can  be  swung  up  out  of  the  way. 

Colored  spots  are  often  desirable,  and  can  be  ob- 
tained either  by  the  use  of  colored  gelatine  slides  or  the 
disc  with  different  colors  of  gelatine. 

ANNOUNCEMENT  SLIDES. 

Neat  announcement  slides  give  a  certain  style  or 
character  to  a  show.  For  the  regular  announcement 
slides  used  every  performance,  it  is  better  to  have  a  per- 
manent slide  such  as  are  manufactured  by  the  various 
novelty  slide  manufacturers  than  a  hastily  home-made 
slide. 

To  announce  coming  features  and  other  things, 
where  the  slide  is  to  be  used  for  one  or  two  nights,  sev- 
eral methods  can  be  used  to  make  the  slides.  One  of 
the  simplest  slides  can  be  made  by  writing  with  water- 
proof ink  on  a  plain  glass  slide.  This  gives  black  letters 
on  a  white  field.  Use  Higgins  or  some  other  waterproof 
black  ink  and  a  small  fine  pen  or  brush.  This  is  per- 
haps the  quickest  made  of  all  slides.  A  piece  of  col- 
ored gelatine  bound  between  two  cover  glasses,  one  of 
the  glasses  bearing  the  announcement,  will  give  a  differ- 
ent colored  field  and  will  not  be  so  glaring  as  the  white 
field. 

Announcements  can  be  typewritten  on  thin  paper 
and  then  bound  between  two  cover  glasses.  Intensifies 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING          179 

dusted  on  these  announcements  bring  out  the  letters  more 
clearly. 

PRIVATE   LIGHTING    PLANTS. 

Owners  and  managers  of  moving  picture  theaters 
have  their  share  of  tribulations,  and  the  obtaining  of 
suitable  electric  current  at  reasonable  prices  is  not  the 
least  of  their  trouble.  Alternating  current  is  not  well 
suited  for  moving  picture  work,  and  under  many  con- 
ditions is  almost  intolerable,  especially  in  the  lower 
cycles,  with  its  ceaseless  flicker,  as  well  as  in  the  large 
number  of  instances  in  which  the  regulation  is  poor. 
Direct  current  with  good  regulation,  at  the  proper  volt- 
age, and  at  a  reasonable  price,  is  ideal,  but  almost  never 
obtainable.  In  most  of  the  smaller  cities,  and  many  of 
the  large  ones  as  well,  the  station  equipment  is  inferior 
or  poorly  looked  after,  and  the  result  is  a  variation  of 
from  10  to  20  per  cent  in  the  voltage.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  of  those  stations  which  furnish  electrical 
energy  for  street  car  and  power  service.  So  much  for 
regulation.  As  to  proper  voltage,  a  moving  picture  lamp 
requires  only  forty  to  fifty  volts  at  the  arc.  Allowing  for 
resistance,  an  input  of  sixty  volts  is  ample;  but  the  cur- 
rent supplied  by  lighting  companies  is  never  under  110 
volts,  and  from  that  up  to  220  volts,  so  that  from  one- 
half  to  three-quarters  of  the  current  paid  for  is  wasted 
in  the  rheostat.  This  is  a  serious  question.  One  of  the 
principal  items  of  expense  of  a  moving  picture  theater 
is  the  electric  current.  The  attitude  of  lighting  com- 
panies in  most  towns,  both  small  and  large,  towards 
the  moving  picture  theater  is  most  aggravating.  They 
figure,  with  much  shrewdness,  that  the  theater  must  have 
electric  light,  and  usually  push  prices  up  to  the  last  notch. 
It  is  not  unusual  to  find  a  theater  using  1,000  to  1,500 
k.  w.  monthly,  charged  at  the  rate  of  12  to  15  cents  a 
k.  w.,  while  an  auto  garage,  saloon,  or  butcher  shop  a  few 
doors  away  is  paying  from  3  to  5  cents  per  k.  w.  on  a 
consumption  of  one-tenth  as  much.  In  very  many  of 
the  smaller  towns  a  serious  loss  to  the  show  owner  lies  in 
the  inability  to  get  current  in  the  day  time,  which  cuts 
into  his  possible  revenue  to  the  extent  of  20  to  40  per 
cent.  Revolting  against  these  conditions,  many  owners 
have  within  the  past  year  or  so  put  in  their  own  electric 
light  plant,  thus  cutting  the  cost  of  current  materially. 


180  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

At  the  present  time  there  are  several  makes  of  gas 
engines  that  are  specially  built  for  motion  picture  work. 
They  operate  equally  well  on  illuminating  gas,  gasoline, 
kerosene  or  crude,  and  are  capable  of  materially  reducing 
the  expenses  of  the  show.  The  voltage  of  the  generator, 
which  is  direct  connected  to  the  gas  engine,  is  usually 
about  60  volts,  so  that  the  rheostatic  losses  at  the  lamp 
are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  An  engine  of  this  type  is 
illustrated  by  Fig.  52a,  direct  connected  to  the  generator 


Fig.    52-A.      Direct   Connected   Engine  and    Generator. 

shown  at  the  right.  The  switchboard  containing  the 
switches  and  measuring  instruments  is  shown  at  the  rear 
of  the  generator. 

The  floor  space  occupied  by  the  outfit  is  small,  and 
the  machine  requires  but  little  attention.  Nearly  any  of 
the  attendants  about  the  average  show  will  be  able  to 
operate  the  plant  after  a  few  instructions. 

THE  OPERATOR'S  BOOTH. 

The  importance  of  the  operating  room,  its  equip- 
ment, and  its  occupant  should  receive  the  most  careful 
attention  of  the  exhibitor,  because,  with  the  screen,  it 
is  the  vital  part  of  the  theater.  It  must  be  directly 
opposite  the  screen  upon  which  the  pictures  are  pro- 
jected, either  in  front  or  back  of  it.  As  most  of  the 
screens  are  located  on  the  rear  wall  of  the  theater,  the 
operating  room  is  necessarily  placed  near  the  front  end, 
generally  over  the  entrance  or  lobby  of  the  theater.  The 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING 


181 


only  objection  to  this  is  that  in  case  of  fire  the  audience 
would  have  to  run  a  gauntlet  of  flames  to  get  out  unless 
there  were  other  exits.  But  with  the  many  safety  de- 
vices offered  by  the  modern  machine,  and  the  care  with 
which  the  films  are  handled,  fires  are  of  extremely  rare 
occurrence  and  seldom  do  they  get  beyond  the  operating 
room. 

Formerly  all  operating  rooms  were  covered  with 
sheet  metal  inside  and  out,  but  now  other  fireproof 
materials  are  more  generally  used,  giving  more  satisfac- 
tion. If  it  is  necessary  to  use  sheet  metal  the  studding 
should  be  first  covered  with  asbestos  board  ^4  mch 
thick,  over  which  the  sheet  metal  may  be  nailed.  Nail 
the  metal  securely  to  the  studding  so  that  there  will  be 
no  danger  of  the  seam's  opening  up. 

Hollow  terra  cotta  tile  4  inches  thick,  makes  the 
best  fireproof  material.  It  may  be  laid  up  easier  and 
in  less  time  than  concrete.  Holes  are  easily  broken 
through  the  tile  for  peep  holes. 

Other  details  relating  to  the  construction  of  the 
booth  can  be  found  in  Chapter  V. 

Secure  your  machine  thoroughly  to  the  floor  by 
embedding  strips  in  the  concrete ;  or  if  you  have  an  iron 
floor  nail  two  wood  strips  of  Ix2-inch  stuff  on  the  floor 
in  which  you  have  drilled  holes  for  the  four  legs  of  the 
machine.  Brace  the  legs  with  wire  and  your  machine 
will  be  solid.  The  lamphouse  should  be  grounded  by 
fastening  a  wire  to  it  and  running  the  wire  to  a  water  or 
waste  pipe,  not  a  steam  pipe.  This  may  save  you  an 
unpleasant  shock.  In  placing  the  machine,  put  it  far 
enough  back  from  the  front  wall  of  the  operating  room 
so  that  the  operator  may  place  his  chair  opposite  the 
head  instead  of  opposite  the  lamphouse.  In  this  way 
he  will  not  get  as  much  of  the  heat  from  the  lamp,  and 
his  eyes  will  not  be  injured  by  looking  at  the  bright  spot 
on  the  gate. 

It  is  better  not  to  have  the  operator's  chair  or  stool 
secured  to  the  floor,  so  that  it  may  be  pushed  out  of  the 
way  when  necessary.  When  possible  it  is  better  to  have 
the  machine  high  enough  from  the  floor  so  that  the  opera- 
tor may  stand  up  occasionally  to  run  his  machine,  as  sit- 
ting down  on  a  stool  on  a  long  run  is  somewhat  tiresome. 

The  rheostat  or  transformer  should  be  placed  on 


182  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

the  opposite  side  of  the  machine  from  the  operator,  near 
the  lamphouse.  If  you  are  using  alternating  current,  use 
a  transformer,  as  it  will  not  only  reduce  your  light  bills, 
but  will  not  give  off  near  as  much  heat  as  the  rheostat. 
It  is  a  good  idea  to  have  an  extra  rheostat  connected  on 
the  line,  so  that  during  a  long  run  you  can  switch  on 
the  extra  rheostat  when  the  first  becomes  heated,  thus 
allowing  it  to  cool  off. 

The  knife  switches  for  the  machine  should  be  en- 
closed and  installed  so  that  accidental  contact  cannot 
be  made.  A  separate  switch  should  be  used  for  each 
lamp  and  a  main  switch  to  turn  off  both  lamps  if  a 
dissolver  is  used.  Only  double  pole-knife  switches 
should  be  used  for  arc  lamps.  Place  the  switches  so 
that  the  operator  may  reach  them  when  sitting  at  the 
machine.  A  switch  to  control  one  of  the  house  cir- 
cuits may  be  placed  in  the  room  so  that  in  case  of  acci- 
dent some  one  of  the  house  lights  may  be  switched  on. 

A  rubber  mat  should  be  placed  on  all  iron  floors 
upon  which  the  operator  may  stand  or  place  his  chair 
without  danger  of  a  shock. 

The  rewind  should  be  located  near  the  machine, 
so  that  if  necessary  the  operator  may  rewind  the  films 
while  running  the  machine.  This  is  bad  practice,  but 
must  be  put  up  with  once  in  a  while.  The  laws  in 
some  cities  prohibit  rewinding  in  the  operating  room ; 
in  such  cases  the  rewind  is  generally  located  in  the 
workroom.  There  should  be  three  or  four  empty  reels 
for  use  in  the  machine  kept  in  the  room,  which  have 
perfect  springs  and  run  true.  These  should  be  marked 
and  not  taken  out  of  the  room. 

A  metal  case  with  compartments  for  three  or  four 
reels  should  be  placed  handy  to  the  machine  near  or 
on  the  floor.  All  films  when  not  in  use  should  be  kept 
in  this  case.  A  metal  case  should  be  used  to  keep 
leaders  and  scraps  of  film.  Never  leave  any  film  lying 
exposed  on  the  floor,  no  matter  how  small  a  piece. 

A  shelf  should  be  placed  near  the  machine,  upon 
which  to  keep  song  slides,  cement  and  other  articles 
in  constant  use.  In  some  cities  all  shelves  must  be 
covered  with  metal. 

The  work  bench  may  be  placed  in  the  operating 
room,  or  better,  in  a  separate  room  with  a  large  window 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING          183 

in  it.  There  is  always  more  or  less  tinkering  to  be  done 
in  a  theater,  and  a  separate  workroom  is  very  convenient. 
The  bench  should  be  substantially  made  of  two-inch 
plank  and  equipped  with  a  small  vise. 

Two  or  three  outlets  for  lights  with  cords  should  be 
in  every  operating  room ;  one  over  the  machine,  one  near 
the  rewind,  and  one  to  light  up  the  room  in  general. 
The  incandescent  lights  should  be  protected  with  wire 
guards.  An  outlet  should  be  provided  for  a  fan. 

Bells  and  push  buttons  to  signal  to  various  parts  of 
the  house  should  be  located  near  the  operator.  A  speak- 
ing tube  or  small  telephone  should  be  placed  conveniently 
so  that  the  operator  may  speak  to  the  manager. 

A  stock  of  fuses  of  the  various  sizes  should  be  kept 
on  hand.  Wire  for  incandescent  lighting  and  an  extra 
set  of  asbestos-covered  wire  with  connection  terminals 
fastened  on  ready  to  attach. 

BELLS   AND    BUZZERS. 

Any  number  of  bells  and  buzzers  may  be  rung  from 
one  battery  of  a  couple  of  dry  cells  if  the  wiring  is  prop- 
erly arranged.  Furthermore,  there  need  be  no  trouble 
whatever  in  the  addition  of  another  bell  and  button  to 
the  system  at  any  time  if  the  rules  for  such  systems  are 
understood  and  correctly  followed  in  the  first  wiring. 

To  wire  your  buzzers  correctly  get  three  colors  of 
No.  18  wire.  What  is  known  as  double-cotton-covered 
paraffined  annunciator  wire  is  the  cheapest  that  is  good 
enough.  This  is  copper  wire  of  No.  18  B.  &  S.  gauge, 
wrapped  with  two  layers  of  cotton  thread,  the  thread 
being  wound  on  in  spirals.  The  spiral  of  the  outer  layer 
is  in  the  reverse  direction  from  the  spiral  of  the  first 
layer  so  that  the  threads  constantly  cross. 

When  no  more  than  two  or  three  cells  of  a  battery 
are  used,  the  wires  may  be  fastened  to  the  woodwork 
with  staples,  placing  only  one  wire  under  a  staple.  When 
a  number  of  wires  are  run  together,  they  may  be  placed 
under  wooden  cleats  or  in  a  wooden  electric-light  mould- 
ing. On  outdoor  work,  rubber  insulation  should  be 
used  because  of  the  moisture. 

There  are  to  be  three  colors  of  wires,  one  color  for 
common  bell  wire,  one  color  for  common  push  button 
wire,  and  one  color  for  individual  wires.  The  diagram 
shown  by  Fig.  53  gives  the  "code"  or  explanation  of  the 


184 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 


diagrams  that  are  to  follow.  It  will  be  noted  that  each 
color  of  wire  is  indicated  by  a  different  kind  of  line.  The 
actual  colors  may  be  anything  that  is  convenient  as  the 
colors  are  simply  used  to  designate  the  part  that  they  play 
in  the  circuit.  In  selecting  the  three  colors,  the  name  of 
the  colors  may  help  the  memory  if  they  are  properly 
chosen.  Supposing  that  red  wire,  white  wire,  and  blue 
wire  represent  ringer  wire,  button  wire,  and  feed  wires 
respectively,  then  we  can  tell  their  nature  at  a  glance. 
Take  the  wire  selected  for  first  color  or  common  bell 
wire  and  run  a  single  wire  from  the  batteries  to  one  of 
the  binding  posts  on  each  of  the  buzzers  and  bells ;  not  a 
wire  to  each,  but  a  single  wire,  running  from  one  to 
another  until  all  are  connected  at  one  binding  post  only. 

CODE: 

Bell  *®  Battery  Dry  Cell 

(£)  Push  Button 

- Wire,  First  Color 

Buzzer.  Wire,  Second  Col  or. 

Wire,  Third  Color. 

Fig.  S3.     Bell  wiring.     Symbols  for  drawings. 

The  ringer  wire  may  start  from  the  battery  in  several 
directions  if  that  is  the  most  convenient  way  to  reach 
all  of  the  bells  and  buzzers. 

CONNECTING  THE  BATTERIES. 

Connect  the  two  cells  of  the  batteries  together,  the 
zinc  of  one  to  the  carbon  of  the  other,  as  shown  in  the 
diagram,  and  connect  the  common  ringer  wire,  first-color 
wire,  to  one  of  the  free  binding  posts  of  the  battery. 

It  makes  ho  difference  which  of  the  binding  posts  of 
the  battery  or  which  of  the  binding  posts  of  any  bell 
or  buzzer  is  connected  to  the  first-color  wire;  the  rule 
is  that  first-color  wire  must  connect  to  one  side  of  every 
annunciator  device  and  to  one  side  of  the  battery. 

CONNECTING  THE  PUSH  BUTTONS. 

Now  take  the  second-color  wire,  or  "push-button 
wire,"  and,  starting  from  the  remaining  binding  post  of 
the  battery,  run  to  one  side  of  every  push  button,  taking 
the  buttons  in  any  order  just  so  the  second  color  wire 
gets  to  all  of  them. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          185 

It  makes  no  difference  which  of  the  button  springs 
the  wire  is  connected  to ;  the  rule  is  that  the  second  color 
wire  must  connect  to  one  side  of  every  button  and  to 
one  side  of  the  battery. 

CONNECTING  THE  SIGNAL  WIRES. 

Both  sides  of  the  battery  now  are  connected  and 
every  buzzer  and  every  button  has  one  side  connected. 
Next  comes  the  running  of  the  individual  signal  wires, 
or  third-color  wire. 

The  rule  for  the  third-color  wire  is  that  each  push 
button  must  be  connected  by  a  separate  individual  third- 
color  wire  to  the  bell,  buzzer  or  annunciator  which  that 
button  is  to  ring. 

Run  the  third-color  wires  one  at  a  time.  In  each 
case  you  will  find  a  second-color  wire  already  on  the 
push  button,  and  to  the  remaining  spring  of  the  push 
button  connect  your  third-color  wire,  then  cut  it  to  the 
proper  length,  put  it  in  place  neatly  and  see  that  the 
other  end  of  it  reaches  the  bell  or  buzzer  which  that  push 
button  must  ring.  One  of  the  binding  posts  of  this  bell 
or  buzzer  already  has  a  first-color  wire,  and  when  you 
have  connected  the  third-color  wire  in  the  remaining  post 
of  the  bell  a  push  upon  the  button  will  ring  that  bell,  and 
no  other.  This  is  true,  no  matter  how  many  buttons  and 
bells  are  connected  up  to  the  one  battery. 

In  this  system,  each  bell  and  button  has  but  a  single 
wire,  which  belongs  to  that  bell  and  button  alone,  and  the 
total  number  of  wires  used  is  absolutely  the  smallest 
which  will  do  the  work.  In  addition  to  the  single  wire, 
which  is  third  color,  each  bell  is  reached  by  the  common 
first-color  wire,  and  each  button  is  reached  by  the  com- 
mon second-color  wire. 

ADDING   A   BELL. 

To  install  an  additional  button  and  buzzer  upon  a 
system  correctly  wired  as  above  proceed  as  follows : 

Test  the  buzzer  and  mount  it  where  desired ;  mount 
the  push-button  where  desired. 

Get  a  piece  of  first-color  wire  and  run  it  from  one 
binding  post  of  the  buzzer  to  any  first-color  wire  already 
in  use ;  preferably  this  is  from  the  nearest  bell  or  buzzer, 
or  possibly  from  the  battery,  but  this  new  first-color  wire 
may  be  attached  to  any  first-color  wire  anywhere  that 
such  a  wire  can  be  found. 


186 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 


Get  a  piece  of  second-color  wire  and  run  it  from  one 
of  the  springs  of  the  new  button  to  any  second  color 
wire.  If  the  new  button  goes  in  beside  an  old  button  a 
few  inches  of  wire  is  all  that  is  needed. 

Get  a  piece  of  third  color  and  connect  the  remaining 
spring  of  the  new  push  button  to  the  remaining  binding 
post  of  the  new  buzzer,  and  the  new  push  button  will  ring 
the  new  buzzer. 

THE  DIAGRAM. 

The  wiring  diagram  shown  by  Fig.  54  shows  an 
arrangement  for  a  small  theater  where  the  program  is 
conducted  by  the  door-keeper.  The  "Code"  will  explain 
the  meaning  of  the  different  parts  of  the  diagram,  and 
from  this  it  should  be  easily  understood. 


Fig.  54.     Bell  wiring.     A  complete  system. 

In  the  diagram,  button  1  will  ring  buzzer  a  and  no 
other ;  button  2  will  ring  buzzer  b ;  button  3  will  ring  bell 
c ;  button  4  will  ring  buzzer  d ;  button  5  will  ring  buzzer 
e;  button  6  will  ring  bell  f. 

In  this  arrangement,  the  door  keeper  is  in  position 
to  control  the  program  of  the  show.  The  door  keeper 
has  buttons  1,  2,  3,  buzzers  d,  e,  and  bell  f.  In  the 
retiring  room  behind  the  stage  are  buttons  4,  buzzer  b, 
and  bell  c.  In  the  picture  operator's  booth  are  button  5 
and  buzzer  a.  Button  6  is  in  the  cashier's  booth  and  is 
an  emergency  call  from  her  to  the  door-keeper. 

SPECIAL   CONDITIONS. 

While  this  covers  all  conditions  usually  met  in  bell 
wiring  for  small  theaters,  yet  there  are  special  condi- 
tions likely  to  be  met  at  any  time,  and  three  of  them  will 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          187 

be  taken  up  in  detail.  These  are  (1)  the  ringing  of  one 
bell  from  several  buttons,  (2)  the  ringing  of  several 
bells  from  one  button,  and  (3)  special  battery  conditions 
for  long  lines  of  wiring. 

ONE  BELL  FROM   SEVERAL  BUTTONS. 

Taking  up  first  the  ringing  of  a  single  signal  device 
by  two  or  more  push  buttons,  the  circuits  for  a  buzzer 
and  three  push  buttons  are  shown  in  diagram  in  Fig. 
55.  The  method  of  wiring  is  as  follows : 

Having  mounted  the  buzzer  and  the  three  buttons 
where  desired,  take  a  piece  of  wire  of  the  first  color  of 


h 

d>e       <|>9 

9    9 

:    I 

~^ 

i 

<Ti_/2L._       L7$ 

Fig.  55.     Bell  wiring.     Several  buttons  to  ring  one  bell. 

the  color  scheme,  and  connect  either  binding  post  of  the 
buzzer  to  the  side  of  the  battery  which  already  has  con- 
nected to  it  a  wire  or  wires  of  the  same  color  as  the 
wire  being  used.  Next,  take  a  piece  of  wire  of  the 
second  color  of  the  color  scheme  and  connect  the  remain- 
ing side  of  the  battery  (which  already  has  wires  of  the 
second  color  attached  to  it)  to  one  of  the  springs  of 
each  of  the  three  push  buttons.  This  may  be  done  by 
running  the  wire  from  the  battery  to  one  of  the  springs 
of  one  of  the  buttons  and  then  from  that  spring  (leaving 
the  other  spring  of  the  button  empty  as  yet)  to  one  of 
the  springs  of  each  of  the  other  buttons;  or,  if  more 
convenient  by  reason  of  the  locations  of  the  buttons 
there  may  be  two  or  three  of  the  second  color  wires, 
leaving  the  battery  in  different  directions,  and  going 
independently  to  the  two  or  three  or  more  buttons  which 
are  to  ring  the  buzzer.  In  any  case,  each  button  has  an 
empty  spring  left  upon  it,  after  the  second-color  wires, 
or  battery  wires,  have  been  connected. 

Now  take  a  third-color  wire  and  begin  at  the  buzzer. 
Attach  the  third-color  wire  to  the  remaining  binding 
post  of  the  buzzer,  and  run  to  the  most  convenient  of 
the  buttons,  attaching  to  the  remaining  spring  of  that 
button.  To  reach  the  other  buttons,  a  third-color  wire 
is  used,  but  it  may  be  run  either  from  the  buzzer  or  from 


188  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

the  button  which  was  connected  first,  or  from  any  point 
on  the  third-color  wire  first  put  in  between  the  buzzer 
and  the  first  button.  The  running  of  the  wire  from  an 
intermediate  point  is  not  desirable,  because  of  the  joint 
which  must  be  made,  unless  it  is  inconvenient  to  run  it 
either  from  the  buzzer  or  from  the  first  button. 

ADDING  A   BUTTON   TO  SYSTEM. 

In  adding  a  second  button  to  a  system  which  is 
already  in  operation,  to  have  the  new  button  ring  a  buz- 
zer which  is  ringing  already  from  one  button,'  the 
simplest  method  of  all  is  just  to  run  two  wires  from  the 
old  button  to  the  new  one;  in  doing  this,  however,  if 


10 


Fig.  56.     Bell  wiring.     Two  bells  from  a  single  push  button. 

your  complete  installation  was  put  in  properly  with  three 
colors  of  wires,  then  the  new  wires  should  be  carefully 
placed  to  match  the  right  colors,  otherwise  trouble  will 
result  when  making  still  further  additions  to  the  system, 
later. 

TWO  BELLS  FROM  ONE  BUTTON. 

Another  and  fundamentally  similar  case  arises  when 
it  is  desired  to  ring  two  bells  or  buzzers  from  the  same 
push  button.  This  case  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  56.  In  that 
diagram  the  bells  are  widely  separated  and  the  button 
is  near  the  battery.  From  the  battery  two  wires  of  first 
color  run  to  the  two  bells  independently ;  a  short  wire  of 
second  color  runs  from  the  battery  to  the  button,  and 
from  the  second  spring  of  the  button  two  wires  of  third 
color  run  independently  to  the  second  binding  posts  of 
the  two  bells.  Care  should  be  used  in  connecting  up 
this  arrangement  according  to  the  color  code  if  any  three 
colors  of  wire  can  be  obtained. 

Little  difficulty  ever  is  experienced  in  ringing  two 
bells  from  one  push  button,  but  when  more  than  two  are 
required  to  be  rung  a  special  battery  arrangement  may 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  19 

be  required.  The  reason  that  two  bells  seldom  give  any 
trouble  is  that  two  bell  tappers  will  strike  alternately. 
The  principle  of  the  vibrating  bell  is  that  when  it  is 
pulled  up  by  the  battery  current  it  breaks  its  own  circuit 
and  stops  the  current,  the  tapper  then  falling  back  while 
the  circuit  is  broken  and  the  current  is  not  flowing,  but 
when  the  tapper  falls  back  it  closes  the  battery  circuit 
and  is  pulled  up  again.  The  second  bell,  therefore,  gets 
the  full  force  of  the  battery,  while  the  first  bell  is  in  its 
striking  position  and  the  second  bell  pulls  up  and  taps 
while  the  first  bell  is  falling  back.  Thus,  two  bells  will 
take  "turn  about"  with  the  battery  and  will  ring  satis- 
factorily, even  though  one  of  them  be  at  a  considerable 


n 


Fig.  57.      Bell  wiring.     A  booster  battery. 

distance  from  the  battery  and  the  other  very  near  (the 
worst  possible  condition,  for  the  nearer  one  tends  to 
"rob"  the  battery  current  from  the  far  one). 

THE  PROBLEM   OF  LONG  LINES. 

Another  condition  requiring  special  treatment  is 
that  in  which  one  of  the  bells  or  buzzers  of  a  system  is 
located  at  a  very  much  greater  distance  than  the  remain- 
ing ones.  A  push  button  at  a  distance  involves  the  same 
trouble  and  is  cared  for  by  the  same  remedy.  This  con- 
dition is  shown  in  the  diagram  of  Fig.  57. 

The  buzzer  n  and  the  buttons  11  and  12  are  located 
near  the  battery  B.  The  buzzer  m  is  at  a  distance  so 
great  that  it  does  not  ring  satisfactorily  with  the  two 
cells  of  the  battery  B;  yet  if  three  cells  are  used  at  B 
the  buzzer  n  makes  more  noise  than  is  agreeable,  and, 
furthermore,  the  batteries  deteriorate  more  rapidly  be- 
cause of  the  greater  current  taken. 

A  BOOSTER  CELL  FOR  LONG  LINES. 

The  solution  of  the  trouble  is  to  put  an  additional 
battery  cell  in  the  circuit  for  the  buzzer  m  without  in- 


190  MOTION   PICTURE   MAKING  AND  EXHIBITING 

eluding  it  in  the  circuit  for  the  buzzer  w.  This  is  done 
by  placing  the  extra  cell  either  at  the  buzzer  or  at  the 
button  which  rings  it.  The  cell  may  be  placed  in  the 
third-color  wire,  but  preferably  is  placed  in  the  first- 
color  wire  if  placed  at  the  buzzer,  and  in  the  second- 
color  wire  if  placed  at  the  push  button.  Buzzer  m  now 
rings  through  three  cells  and  buzzer  n  rings  through 
two  cells. 

The  added  cell  is  called  a  "booster."  In  installing 
a  booster  cell  the  carbon  terminal  of  the  booster  cell 
must  be  connected  to  the  zinc  terminal  of  the  cells  of  the 
main  battery,  or  the  zinc  of  the  booster  to  the  carbon 
terminal  of  the  main  battery.  It  having  been  decided 
that  the  booster  cell  will  be  put  in  at  the  buzzer,  and 
therefore  that  it  will  be  put  in  the  first-color  wire,  notice 
that  the  first-color  wire  at  the  battery  is  connected  to  the 
edge  binding  post  of  the  cells;  then  at  the  buzzer  con- 
nect the  first-color  wire  to  the  middle  binding  post  of  the 
booster  cell,  connecting  the  edge  post  of  the  booster  to 
the  buzzer.  This  connects  the  middle  post  of  the  booster 
to  the  edge  post  of  the  main  battery,  or  carbon  to  zinc, 
as  required.  If,  on  connecting  in  a  booster  cell  the  buz- 
zer does  not  ring  try  reversing  the  booster  by  transpos- 
ing the  wires  at  its  binding  posts. 

THE  BATTERY  FOR  THE  LINE   WIRING. 

In  a  bell  and  buzzer  system  the  amount  of  battery 
required  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  lines.  An  ordi- 
nary bell  or  buzzer  is  made  to  ring  on  one  cell,  and  it 
should  pass  this  test  before  it  is  put  up  for  use.  How- 
ever the  wire  which  is  used  in  the  circuit  will  take  some 
of  the  power  of  the  battery,  and  usually  one  extra  cell 
is  used  to  provide  for  waste  of  power  in  the  wiring ;  one 
cell  for  the  wiring  and  one  cell  for  the  bell.  When  the 
line  of  wiring  is  long,  one  cell  may  not  be  enough  for  the 
wiring  and  two  or  three  must  be  used. 

In  the  case  of  Fig.  57,  therefore,  the  use  of  two 
cells  for  the  buzzer  which  is  near  the  batteries  and 
three  cells  for  buzzer  which  is  more  distant  from  the 
batteries  does  not  in  any  way  indicate  that  the  buzzer 
requiring  the  three  cells  is  not  as  good  a  buzzer  as  the 
one  which  works  on  two  cells. 

Were  the  buzzer  near  and  the  button  distant  from 
the  battery  the  result  would  be  the  same ;  it  is  the  length 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 

of  the  wiring  which  causes  the  hardship  and  requires 
the  additional  battery  cell. 

IMPORTANCE   OF   THE    COLOR    CODE. 

The  system  of  color-code  for  the  wiring  of  bell  and 
buzzer  system  should  be  understood  and  used  in  wiring 
any  system  of  signaling  circuits  which  has  more  than  a 
single  buzzer  or  a  single  button.  The  saving  in  time 
when  something  goes  wrong  with  the  system,  whether 
from  an  earthquake  or  from  a  mouse's  gnawing  a  wire 
in  two,  will  repay  all  the  trouble  involved  in  putting  in 
the  system  of  wires  properly  at  first 


CHAPTER  VII. 


TYPICAL  ORDINANCES  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  GOVERNING  MO- 
TION PICTURE  THEATERS.    REMARKS  ON  VENTILATION. 

As  a  guide  to  prospective  owners  and  managers 
of  picture  shows  who  desire  general  information  in 
regard  to  the  typical  requirements  of  the  municipal 
authorities  and  the  board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  I  have 
abstracted  a  number  of  clauses  from  the  laws  and  regu- 
lations of  these  bodies.  In  no  case  do  the  excerpts  cover 
the  entire  requirements  of  any  one  city — for  this  would 
take  far  more  space  than  the  entire  subject  of  motion 
pictures — but  it  will  give  the  builder  an  idea  of  the  con- 
ditions that  he  is  generally  called  upon  to  meet,  and  thus 
will  afford  him  a  basis  on  which  to  make  his  calculations 
in  regard  to  the  construction  and  operation. 

Following  this  will  be  found  a  few  remarks  upon  the 
subject  of  ventilation — a  most  important  feature  of  the 
modern  picture  show,  and  one  which  is  in  constant  dispute 
by  local  boards  of  health  and  private  improvement  asso- 
ciations. 

CONDUCT  OF  THE  SHOW. 

A  special  commission  appointed  by  Mayor  Gaynor  of 
New  York,  submitted  the  following  ordinance  on  Novem- 
ber 4,  1911.  The  portions  of  the  ordinances  quoted  cover 
more  particularly  the  operation  of  the  theater  than  its 
construction : 

SUB-SECTION  "F". 

7. — Lighting — Every  portion  of  a  motion  picture 
theater,  including  exits,  courts  and  corridors,  devoted  to 
the  uses  of  accommodation  of  the  public,  shall  be  so 
lighted  during  all  exhibitions  and  until  the  entire  audience 
has  left  the  premises,  that  a  person  with  normal  eyesight 
should  be  able  to  read  the  Snellen  standard  test  type  40 
at  a  distance  of  twenty  feet  and  type  30  at  a  distance  of 
ten  feet ;  normal  eyesight  meaning  ability  to  read  type  20 


MOTION   PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          193 

at  a  distance  of  twenty  feet  in  daylight.  Cards  showing 
types  20,  30  and  40  shall  be  displayed  on  all  four  walls, 
together  with  a  copy  of  this  paragraph  of  the  ordinance. 

//. — Heating — When  the  temperature  of  the  outdoor 
air  is  below  60  degrees  Fahr.  the  air  in  the  theater,  while 
an  audience  is  present,  shall  be  maintained  at  a  temper- 
aturex)f  not  lower  than  62  degrees  Fahr.  or  higher  than 
70  degrees  Fahr. 

In  heating  motion  picture  theaters,  no  gas  stoves,  oil 
stoves  or  other  apparatus  throwing  the  products  of  com- 
bustion into  the  air  of  the  theater,  shall  be  used. 

///. — Ventilation — Motion  picture  theaters  having 
less  than  two  hundred  cubic  feet  of  air  space  for  each 
person,  or  motion  picture  theaters  in  which  the  outside 
window  and  door  area  is  less  than  one-eighth  of  the  floor 
area,  shall  be  provided  with  artificial  means  of  ventilation 
which  shall  supply  during  the  time  the  audience  is  present, 
at  least  five  hundred  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per  hour  for 
each  person. 

Motion  picture  theaters  having  more  than  two  hun- 
dred cubic  feet  of  air  space  for  each  person,  or  which 
have  outside  windows  and  doors,  the  area  of  which  is 
equal  to  at  least  one-eighth  of  the  floor  area,  shall  be 
provided  with  artificial  means  of  ventilation,  which  shall 
be  in  operation  when  the  outside  temperature  requires  the 
windows  to  be  kept  closed,  and  which  shall  supply  during 
the  time  the  audience  is  present,  at  least  five  hundred 
cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per  hour  for  each  person.  When 
the  artificial  ventilation  is  not  in  operation,  ventilation  by 
means  of  open  doors  and  windows  shall  be  sufficient  to 
provide  each  person  with  five  hundred  cubic  feet  of  fresh 
air  per  hour. 

Motion  picture  theaters  having  more  than  one  thou- 
sand cubic  feet  of  air  space  for  each  person  and  having 
outside  windows  and  doors,  the  area  of  which  is  equal  to 
at  least  one-eighth  of  the  total  floor  area,  shall  not  be 
required  to  have  artificial  means  of  ventilation,  provided 
the  air  is  thoroughly  changed  by  freely  opening  doors 
and  windows  immediately  before  the  admission  of  the 
audience,  and  at  least  every  four  hours  thereafter. 

No  part  of  the  fresh  air  supply  required  by  any  of 
the  above  paragraphs  of  this  section  shall  be  taken  from 
any  source  containing  vitiated  air. 


194  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

The  area  of  outside  doors  and  windows  shall  mean 
the  area  capable  of  being  freely  opened  to  the  outside  air 
for  ventilation  purposes. 

When  fresh  air  is  supplied  by  means  of  ventilating 
openings,  at  least  one  inlet  shall  be  situated  at  one  end  of 
the  room,  and  at  least  one  outlet  at  the  other  end  of  the 
room.  Where  exhaust  or  inlet  fans  are  necessary,  at  least 
one  of  such  fans  shall  be  placed  in  an  outlet  opening.  The 
inlet  openings  and  their  surroundings  shall  be  kept  free 
from  two  feet  of  the  floor,  and  the  outlet  opening  or  open- 
ings in  the  ceiling  or  within  two  feet  of  the  ceiling.  The 
inlet  openings  and  their  surroundings  shall  be  kept  free 
from  dust  so  that  the  incoming  air  shall  not  convey 
dust  or  stir  up  dust  as  it  enters. 

During  the  time  the  audience  is  present,  the  air  in 
the  theater  shall  be  kept  continuously  in  motion  by  means 
of  fans  to  the  number  of  at  least  one  to  every  one  hundred 
and  fifty  persons.  Such  fans  shall  be  placed  in  positions 
remote  from  the  inlet  and  outlet  openings.  No  person 
shall  be  exposed  to  any  direct  draft  from  any  air  inlet. 

The  booth  in  which  the  picture  machine  is  operated 
shall  be  provided  with  an  opening  in  its  roof  or  upper  part 
of  its  side  wall,  leading  to  the  outdoor  air.  When  the 
booth  is  in  use,  there  shall  be  a  constant  current  of  air 
passing  outward  through  said  opening  or  vent  flue,  at  the 
rate  of  not  less  than  thirty  cubic  feet  per  minute. 

The  specifications  of  the  above  paragraph  shall  apply 
to  portable  booths  and  booths  in  open  air  theaters. 

SUB-SECTION  "G". 

Motion  picture  theaters  must  be  kept  clean  and  free 
from  dust. 

The  floors  where  covered  with  wood,  tiles,  stone,  con- 
crete, linoleum,  or  other  washable  material,  shall  be 
mopped  or  scrubbed  with  water  or  swept  with  moisture, 
or  by  some  other  dustless  method,  at  least  once  daily,  and 
shall  be  scrubbed  with  water  and  soap,  or  water  and  some 
other  solvent  substance  at  least  once  weekly. 

Carpets,  rugs  and  other  fabric  floor  coverings  shall 
be  cleaned  at  least  once  daily  by  means  of  suction  clean- 
ing, beating  or  dustless  sweeping.  Curtains  and  draperies 
shall  be  cleaned  at  least  once  monthly  by  suction  cleaning, 
beating  or  washing.  Cornices,  walls  and  other  dust-hold- 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  195 

ing  places  shall  be  kept  free  from  dust  by  washing  or 
moist  wiping.  The  wood  and  metal  parts  of  all  seats 
shall  be  kept  clean.  Fabric  upholstering  of  seats  and 
railings  and  their  fixed  fabrics  shall  be  cleaned  by  suction 
cleaning,  or  other  dustless  methods,  at  least  once  monthly. 

SUB-SECTION  "H". 

No  child,  actually  or  apparently  under  the  age  of 
sixteen  years,  unless  accompanied  by  its  parent  or 
guardian,  shall  be  permitted  to  enter  any  motion  picture 
theater  except  that  between  the  hours  of  3  p.  m.  and 
6  p.  m.  on  days  when  the  public  schools  are  open  for 
instruction  and  at  any  time  up  to  6  p.  m.  on  other  days, 
unaccompanied  children  under  sixteen  years  of  age  may 
be  admitted  and  allowed  to  remain  not  later  than  7  p.  m., 
provided : 

I. — That  there  shall  be  reserved  in  said  theaters  dur- 
ing the  above-mentioned  hours  for  the  exclusive  use  of 
said  unaccompanied  children,  a  part  or  section  of  seats 
which  shall  be  at  least  three  feet  distant  on  all  sides  from 
all  other  seats. 

II. — That  said  unaccompanied  children  shall  not  be 
permitted  to  occupy  or  remain  in  any  place  or  space  in 
said  theaters  other  than  said  seats,  and  that  during  the 
above-mentioned  hours  no  other  person  except  the 
matron  hereinafter  mentioned,  shall  be  permitted  to  re- 
main within  three  feet  of  said  seats. 

III. — That  at  all  times  during  the  above-mentioned 
hours  there  shall  be  in  attendance  at  each  of  said  theaters 
a  duly  licensed  matron  who  shall  be  paid  by  the  licensee 
of  said  theater  and  who  shall  keep  constant  watch  over 
said  children  and  strictly  enforce  the  provisions  of  this 
section. 

Nothing  contained  in  this  section  shall  apply  to  ex- 
hibitions or  entertainments  given  under  the  auspices  of 
educational,  religious  and  charitable  institutions,  pro- 
vided that  the  proceeds  thereof  are  used  entirely  for 
educational,  religious  or  charitable  purposes. 

SUB-SECTION    "l". 

Matrons  above  referred  to  shall  be  women  of  good 
moral  character,  not  under  forty  years  of  age,  and  shall 
not  serve  unless  they  have  secured  a  license  from  the 


196  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

Mayor.  Said  license  shall  not  be  transferable,  and  the 
annual  fee  therefor  shall  be  five  dollars. 

Applications  for  matron  licenses  shall  be  made  to 
the  Mayor,  and  each  application  shall  be  accompanied 
by  two  photographs  of  the  applicant,  and  shall  bear  the 
endorsement  of  at  least  two  reputable  residents  of  the 
City  of  New  York,  who  shall  certify  to  the  character  and 
qualifications  of  the  applicant,  and  shall  state  the  facts 
or  circumstances  by  which  they  derived  their  knowledge. 

The  photographs  herein  referred  to  shall  not  exceed 
three  inches  in  diameter,  one  of  which  shall  be  affixed 
to  the  application  and  the  other  to  the  license. 

No  person  shall  employ  an  unlicensed  matron  in  a 
motion  picture  theater,  and  immediately  upon  employ- 
ment of  a  matron  the  person  employing  her  shall  notify 
the  Bureau  of  Licenses  in  writing,  stating  the  name,  ad- 
dress and  license  number  of  said  matron. 

NEW  JERSEY  BOOTH  LAWS. 

"State  law  booths"  for  New  Jersey  picture  theaters 
must  hereafter  be  used  in  all  places  where  the  films  are 
shown.  The  requirements  of  local  bureaus  are  now  su- 
perseded by  a  state  law. 

The  new  law  requires  that  booths  shall  be  lined  with 
"asbestos  or  other  strong  and  fire  resisting  material" 
which  shall  be  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick. 

Other  requirements  in  the  new  law  are  that  the 
booths  must  not  be  less  than  forty-eight  square  feet 
in  size  and  seven  feet  high.  The  Newark  regulations 
provided  for  booths  not  containing  less  than  thirty-six 
square  feet,  although  many  are  much  larger.  There 
are  other  minor  provisions  in  the  state  law  that  differ 
with  those  now  in  effect. 

DETROIT    CENSORSHIP    LAWS. 

Under  a  system  adopted  by  the  censorship  board 
of  Detroit,  Mich.,  no  film  can  be  shown  until  it  has  first 
been  inspected  and  a  permit  issued.  The  principal  film 
concerns  submit  their  films  to  the  National  Board  of 
Censors  before  they  are  sent  out,  but  notwithstanding, 
the  exhibitor  must  submit  it  for  a  second  inspection  be- 
fore the  local  board.  The  exhibitor  must  report  to 
police  headquarters,  show  the  film,  and  get  a  written 
permit  which  must  be  kept  in  the  theater.  Any  patrol- 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING  AND   EXHIBITING  197 

man  can  then  demand  to  see  the  permit,  and  if  none  is 
forthcoming,  order  the  film  discontinued. 

SHOWS  AND  CHURCHES. 

An  ordinance  prohibiting  theaters  within  300  feet 
of  a  church  or  school  will  be  passed  by  the  city  com- 
mission of  Omaha,  Neb.  This  ordinance  is  now  drafted. 
While  some  of  the  councilmen  believed  such  theaters 
ought  to  be  500  feet  from  churches  and  schools,  others 
declare  200  feet  is  sufficient.  The  question  will  be  com- 
promised and  300  feet  fixed  as  the  limit. 

NO  FRAME  BUILDINGS  IN  OHIO. 

No  picture  shows  will  be  allowed  to  be  installed  in 
frame  buildings  in  Ohio. 

The  law  does  not  compel  the  tearing  down  of  pres- 
ent frame  structures,  in  which  picture  shows  are  given, 
but  it  does  prevent  the  erection  of  new  shows  in  any 
but  brick  or  fireproof  buildings.  The  answer  is  that  the 
day  of  the  frame  show  building  is  about  over. 

Even  in  the  case  of  extensive  repairs  on  present 
frame  structures,  the  department  of  workshops  and  fac- 
tories compels  the  use  of  fireproof  material.  For  ex- 
ample, if  a  frame  building  is  to  be  arranged  for  the 
placing  of  a  new  balcony  in  it,  the  entire  balcony  would 
have  to  be  fireproof. 

CENSORSHIP    IN    MILWAUKEE. 

A  tentative  draft  of  the  motion  picture-film  censor- 
ship ordinance  has  been  devised  for  Milwaukee,  Wis., 
in  response  to  growing  public  demand. 

It  provides  for  a  board  of  censorship  to  be  appointed 
by  the  mayor,  the  members  to  serve  without  pay  for  a 
two-year  term. 

There  are  seven  sections  to  the  ordinance.  The 
first  forbids  exhibition  of  any  suggestive  picture  or  one 
depicting  murder,  suicide,  robbery,  stabbing,  clubbing, 
or  beating  of  a  human  being.  The  second  establishes 
the  board  of  censorship  and  its  secretary.  The  third 
forbids  the  exhibition  in  Milwaukee  of  any  picture, 
unless  it  has  been  approved  by  the  censors  and  affixed 
with  a  stamp,  "Passed  by  the  Local  Board  of  Censor- 
ship." This  section  will  not  apply  to  pictures  shown 
for  purely  educational,  charitable  or  religious  purposes 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

by  fraternal,  charitable,  educational  and  religious  asso- 
ciations, or  by  libraries,  museums  and  schools. 

PROJECTOR  REGULATIONS. 

An  extensive  set  of  specifications  has  been  made 
for  the  Underwriters'  Equitable  Rating  Bureau  of  Port- 
land, Ore.,  by  F.  D.  Weber,  their  electrical  inspector. 
Parts  of  the  specifications  are  as  follows : 

It  is  urged  that,  wherever  possible,  the  moving- 
picture  machine  be  located  at  the  end  of  the  room 
opposite  the  entrance,  instead  of  at  the  entrance,  as  is 
usually  the  case. 

The  arc  lamps  used  as  a  part  of  the  machine  must 
be  constructed  similar  to  arc  lamps  designed  for  theaters, 
as  far  as  practicable,  and  the  wiring  to  the  lamp  must, 
at  least,  be  the  equivalent  in  current-carrying  capacity  of 
No.  6  B.  &  S.  gauge  copper  wire. 

Wiring  must  all  be  in  approved  rigid  or  flexible 
conduit  (this  includes  booth,  auditorium,  dressing  rooms 
or  any  part  of  the  moving  picture  theater).  Each  pic- 
ture machine,  dissolvers,  flood  or  spot  light  must  be 
wired  as  a  two-wire  circuit,  and  a  two-pole  switch  and 
cut-out  must  be  cut  off  and  protect  the  resistance  and 
arc  for  every  machine.  All  conduits  must  be  brought  to 
a  point  as  near  as  possible  to  the  arcs  of  the  machines. 
Connections  from  arcs  to  conduit  must  be  made  with  as- 
bestos-covered wire.  Conduit  must  be  rigidly  sup- 
ported in  every  case. 

Rheostats  or  other  necessary  current-reducing  de- 
vices must  be  made  entirely  of  non-combustible  material 
and  of  approved  design.  Must  be  mounted  on  non-com- 
bustible support  in  such  a  manner  that  there  will  be  an 
air  space  of  at  least  3  inches  on  all  sides.  The  rheostat 
must  be  of  inclosed  design  or  be  completely  inclosed  by 
a  netting  with  a  mesh  not  greater  than  0.5  inch.  When 
the  resistance  is  not  hung  in  the  operating  room  and  the 
same  is  excessively  hot,  it  must  be  properly  protected  by 
asbestos.  It  is  strongly  advised  that  resistances  be 
suspended  from  the  ceiling  on  straight  insulators.  When 
it  is  possible,  the  resistance  should  be  located  outside 
the  booth. 

Top  and  bottom  reels  must  be  inclosed  in  steel  boxes 
or  magazines,  each  with  an  opening  of  approved  con- 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING  199 

struction  at  the  bottom  or  the  top,  so  arranged  as  not  to 
permit  the  entrance  of  flame  to  the  magazine.  No  solder 
is  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of  these  magazines. 
The  front  side  of  each  magazine  must  consist  of  a  door 
having  spring  hinges  and  swinging  horizontally,  and 
provided  with  a  substantial  latch.  An  automatic  shutter 
must  be  provided,  and  must  be  so  constructed  as  to 
shield  the  film  from  the  beam  of  light  whenever  the 
film  is  not  running  at  operating  speed.  The  shutter 
must  be  permanently  attached  to  the  gate  frame.  In 
addition,  a  non-automatic  shutter  must  be  provided, 
placed  in  front  of  the  condenser,  so  as  to  be  readily 
closed  by  hand. 

Extra  films  must  be  kept  in  individual  metal  boxes 
equipped  with  tightly  fitting  covers. 

Reels  containing  films  under  examination  or  in 
process  of  rewinding  must  be  inclosed  in  magazines  or 
in  approved  metal  boxes  similar  to  those  required  for 
films  in  operation,  and  not  more  than  two  feet  of  the 
film  shall  be  exposed  in  the  booth. 

All  booths  must  be  at  least  6.5  feet  high,  or  high 
enough  to  provide  space  for  gravity  sliding  doors,  with 
floor  space  to  vary  according  to  the  number  of  machines 
in  the  booth.  The  floor  space  for  one  picture  machine 
alone  must  be  6  by  6  feet ;  for  one  picture  machine  and 
one  stereopticon,  9  by  6  feet;  for  two  picture  machines 
and  one  stereopticon,  12  by  6  feet. 

Openings  per  machine  in  the  booth  must  consist  of 
one  for  the  operator  and  one  for  the  machine.  Opening 
for  machine  shall  not  be  more  than  8  inches  high  and  12 
inches  long.  Operator's  window  shall  be  not  more  than 
12  inches  wide  and  more  than  12  inches  high.  All  open- 
ings in  other  portions  of  the  booth,  except  ventilator 
in  ceiling  and  entrance  doors,  must  not  exceed  8  inches 
wide  and  12  inches  high.  All  openings  to  this  booth, 
excepting  entrance  doors  to  this  enclosure  uouse,  must 
be  arranged  so  as  to  be  entirely  closed  by  doors  or 
shutters  constructed  in  the  following  manner:  Doors 
must  be  hung  so  that  gravity  will  tend  to  close  them 
(only  vertical  sliding  doors  will  be  approved)  and  be 
held  open  by  a  twine  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  it 
will  pass  directly  over  the  film  when  in  place.  All  doors 
over  openings,  except  entrance  doors,  must  be  sliding 


200          MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

doors,  and  be  constructed  of  two  pieces  of  No.  20  B.  & 
S.  gauge  galvanized  iron,  one  piece  placed  on  each  side 
of  one-quarter-inch  asbestos;  lap  1  inch  around  the 
corners,  and  the  whole  riveted  together.  The  doors 
must  lap  over  all  edges  of  openings  at  least  1.5  inches. 
The  same  must  run  in  galvanized  iron  guides  of  at  least 
No.  14  B.  &  S.  gauge,  the  guides  to  lap  over  door  at 
least  1  inch,  and  fit  snugly  against  the  openings  cov- 
ered. The  guides  must  be  placed  inside  of  the  booth 
and  all  the  heads  of  nails  or  screws  holding  them  in 
place  must  be  concealed  by  a  single  lock  formed  on  the 
guides.  These  guides  must  be  continued  across  the  bot- 
tom of  the  opening  to  form  a  seat  for  the  door  to  drop 
into,  corners  of  guides  to  be  lapped  and  riveted. 

Ventilation  must  be  obtained  through  the  ceiling  in 
all  booths  to  the  outside  air,  and  no  ventilator  to  be  of 
smaller  size  than  36  square  inches  in  cross  section  per 
machine.  The  ventilator  must  be  constructed  with  lock 
joints  or  rivets,  and  solder  must  not  be  depended  upon 
for  holding  sheets  of  metal  in  place.  The  gauge  of 
metal  must  be  the  same  as  used  in  the  construction  of 
iron  booths. 

Stationary  wooden  metal  lined  booth  must  be  con- 
structed of  sheathing  at  least  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
thick,  supported  by  2  by  4-inch  wooden  studding,  not 
more  than  18-inch  centers,  presenting  a  smooth  and 
solid  surface  on  the  inner  side  of  booth.  All  studding, 
braces,  etc.,  must  be  on  the  outside  of  the  booth.  The 
ceiling  and  walls  of  the  booth  must  be  lined  with  at 
least  one-eighth-inch  asbestos  under  galvanized  sheet 
iron  as  thick  as  No.  24  B.  &  S.  gauge,  and  the  joints  must 
be  locked.  The  floor  must  be  covered  with  galvanized 
sheet  iron,  at  least  as  thick  as  No.  20  B.  &  S.  gauge  sheet 
iron  over  one-eighth-inch  asbestos.  The  metal  must  be 
secured  in  position  by  nails  and  the  heads  of  these  cov- 
ered by  an  approved  lock  joint,  made  with  the  metal 
linings  of  the  booth.  Entrance  doors  must  not  be  larger 
than  2  by  6  feet. 

VENTILATION. 

A  committee  on  standards  for  ventilation  legislation 
presented  the  following  report  at  the  annual  meeting  of 
the  American  Society  of  Heating  and  Ventilating  En- 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING          201 

gineers.     This   report  makes   recommendations   for  the 
minimum  requirements. 

1.  Floor  Area  per  Occupant. — A  minimum  of  four 
and  one-third  square  feet  of  floor  area,  as  a  seating  space, 
per  occupant,  exclusive  of  aisles  and  public  passageways, 
shall  be  provided  in  the  audience  hall. 

2.  Cubic  Space  per  Occupant. — A  minimum  of  80 
cubic  feet  of  air  space,  per  occupant,  shall  be  provided  in 
the  audience  hall. 

3.  Quantity  of  Outdoor  Air. — A  positive  supply  of 
outdoor  air  from  an  uncontaminated  source  shall  be  pro- 
vided the  audience  hall  at  all  times  while  the  show  place 
is  open  to  the  public  and  the  quantity  of  this  positive 
supply  of  outdoor  air  shall  be  based  on  a  minimum  re- 
quirement of  15  cubic  feet  per  minute,  per  occupant.* 

4.  Temperature. — The  temperature  of  the  air  in  the 
audience  hall  shall  at  all  times,  while  the  show  place  is 
open  to   the   public,   be  maintained   throughout   at  the 
breathing  line  (persons  being  seated)  within  the  range  of 
62  degrees  F.  to  70  degrees  F.  (except  when  the  outside 
temperature  is  sufficiently  high  not  to  require  the  air 
supply  for  ventilation  to  be  heated).     The  temperature, 
distribution  and  diffusion  of  the  supplied  outdoor  air 
shall  be  such  as  to  maintain  the  temperature  require- 
ment without  uncomfortable  drafts. 

5.  Direct    Heat    Sources.— Any   good   heat   source 
which  does  not  contaminate  the  air  will  be  accepted  to 
supplement  the  warmed  outdoor  air  supply.     Gas  radi- 
ators are  prohibited. 

6.  Machine      Booth      Ventilation. — Enclosures      or 
booths  for  the  motion  picture  machines  shall  be  provided 
with  special  exhaust  ventilation  with  a  capacity  to  ex- 
haust at  all  times  not  less  than  60  cubic  feet  of  air  per 
minute  through  a  one-machine  booth,  not  less  than  90 
cubic   feet  of   air  per  minute   through   a   two-machine 


*The  ordinance  in  force  in  the  City  of  Chicago  at  the  present  time 
requires  that  the  air  in  the  auditorium  in  the  class  of  buildings  in  which 
motion  picture  show  places  are  included,  shall  be  changed  so  as  to  supply 
for  each  person  for  whom  seating  accommodation  is  provided,  at  least  1,500 
cu.  ft.  of  air  per  hour  for  new  buildings,  and  at  least  1.200  cu.  ft.  of  air  per 
hour  for  buildings  constructed  prior  to  the  passage  of  the  ordinance, 
which  requirements  the  Illinois  Chapter  of  the  Society  considers  practical 
to  obtain  and  desirable  to  require  by  legislation  for  motion  picture  show 
places. 

Higher  standards  of  ventilation  than  set  forth  as  a  minimum  in  the 
committee's  report  are  urged  wherever  possible  to  obtain. 


202          MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

booth,  and  not  less  than  120  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute 
through  a  three-machine  booth. 

This  requirement  shall  include  a  number  of  small 
metal  screened  openings  (equipped  with  special  dampers 
and  automatic  appliance  with  fusible  link  to  automatic- 
ally close  tight  in  case  of  fire  in  the  booth)  on  the  sides 
of  the  booth  near  the  bottom,  aggregating  180  square 
inches  for  a  one-machine  booth,  210  square  inches  for  a 
two-machine  booth,  and  240  square  inches  for  a  three- 
machine  booth ;  and  this  requirement  shall  also  include  a 
metal  or  other  fireproof  flue,  extending  from  the  top  or 
side  at  the  top  of  the  booth,  and  carried  to  a  proper  place 
of  discharge  outdoors.  The  ventilation  should  be  aug- 
mented by  mechanical  or  other  means,  so  as  to  exhaust 
at  least  the  quantity  of  air  as  herein  stated. 

The  size  of  this  special  fireproof  vent  flue  shall  be  not 
less  than  96  square  inches  clear  area  for  a  one-machine 
booth,  not  less  than  120  square  inches  clear  area  for  a 
two-machine  booth,  and  not  less  than  144  square  inches 
clear  area  for  a  three-machine  booth,  and  this  special 
vent  flue  shall  be  provided  with  an  adjustable  damper, 
operated  from  the  booth,  and  equipped  with  an  automatic 
appliance  and  a  fusible  link  to  operate  so  as  to  open  the 
damper  wide  automatically  in  case  of  fire  in  the  booth. 
The  machine  booth  ventilation  shall  be  kept  in  operation 
at  all  times  when  the  booth  is  in  use. 

SOME    FACTS   ABOUT   VENTILATION. 

Human  beings  or  other  animals  in  a  confined  space 
gradually  consume  the  oxygen  present  and  replace  it 
with  oxidation  products,  of  which  carbon  dioxide  is  the 
most  typical.  Hence  it  was  natural  that  attention  should 
be  fixed  primarily  upon  these  points,  and  it  is  still  the 
popular  belief  that  a  crowded  room  is  deficient  in  oxygen. 
Quantitative  experiments  soon  showed,  however,  that 
these  particular  dangers  were  not  of  practical  im- 
portance. The  oxygen  in  the  air  must  be  reduced  from 
21  per  cent  to  15  per  cent  and  the  carbon  dioxide  in- 
creased from  .04  per  cent  to  3  per  cent  before  any 
marked  physiological  effect  is  manifest.  These  values 
are  never  remotely  approached  in  what  we  consider  an 
ordinary  ill-ventilated  room. 

The  next  important  theory  that  took  possession  of 
sanitarians  depended  on  the  assumption  that  in  addition 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING          203 

to  its  more  obvious  constituents  rebreathed  air  contained 
a  mysterious  organic  emanation  of  poisonous  nature, 
which  was  called  "crowd  poison"  or  "morbific  matter." 
This  theory  rested  primarily  on  the  observed  fact  that 
crowded  rooms  have  a  foul,  stale  odor,  and  in  some  ex- 
periments which  were  later  shown  to  be  erroneous.  It 
is  certainly  true  that  to  anyone  entering  an  ill-ventilated 
room  from  purer  outside  air,  a  marked  and  characteristic 
odor  is  apparent.  There  is  no  evidence  that  it  exerts 
any  harmful  physiological  effects  and  some  evidence  that 
it  does  not.  Careful  investigations  made  by  physiologists 
of  the  highest  standing  have  wholly  failed  to  demon- 
strate any  unfavorable  effects  from  rebreathed  air  with 
all  that  it  contains,  provided  only  that  the  temperature 
be  kept  at  a  proper  level.  '  Benedict  and  Milner  observed 
seventeen  different  subjects  kept  for  periods  varying 
from  two  hours  to  thirteen  days  in  a  small  chamber  with 
a  capacity  of  189  cubic  feet  in  which  the  air  was  changed 
only  slowly,  while  the  temperature  was  kept  down  from 
the  outside.  The  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  was  usually 
over  thirty-five  parts  (or  eight  to  nine  times  the  normal) 
and  during  the  daytime  when  the  subject  was  active, 
over  100  parts,  and  at  one  time  reached  240  parts;  and 
all  the  "morbific  matter"  or  other  deleterious  entities 
which  usually  accompany  carbon  dioxide  must  have 
been  present  in  corresponding  proportion.  Yet  there  was 
no  discomfort  whatever,  and  no  detectable  disturbance 
or  normal  physiological  functioning  as  long  as  the  cham- 
ber was  kept  cool.  Dr.  Leonard  Hill  has  recently  placed 
eight  men  in  a  closed  chamber  of  106  cubic  feet  capacity. 
At  the  end  of  half  an  hour  the  wet  bulb  temperature  in 
the  chamber  had  risen  to  85  degrees  F.,  the  faces  of 
the  subjects  were  congested  and  they  experienced  great 
discomfort;  but  their  feelings  were  at  once  relieved, 
without  changing  the  air  at  all,  by  stirring  it  up  and 
cooling  their  bodies  by  the  motion  of  electric  fans  within 
the  chamber. 

Another  point  which  has  received  more  than  its 
due  share  of  popular  attention  is  the  possibility  of  the 
spread  of  disease  bacteria  in  air.  It  is  common  for  the 
"yellow  sanitarian,"  if  one  may  coin  a  term,  to  expose 
plates  in  a  crowded  room  and  show  that  a  great  many 
bacteria  fall  upon  them,  and  then  to  call  on  us  all  to 


204  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

share  his  horror.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the 
bacteria  in  air  are  in  overwhelming  proportion,  good, 
harmless  saprophytic  organisms.  It  is  true  that  tubercle 
bacilli  and  some  other  pathogenic  germs  have  occasion- 
ally been  found  in  dust  and  dusty  air,  but  rarely  and  in 
small  numbers.  While  many  disease  germs  are  not  im- 
mediately killed  by  drying,  we  may  be  sure  from  our 
knowledge  of  the  general  behavior  of  parasitic  organisms 
outside  the  body  that  the  percentage  reduction  in  living 
virulent  germs  is  rapid.  From  a  bacteriological  stand- 
point it  is  clear  that  air  bacteria  must  be  insignificant 
in  their  effects,  compared  from  a  quantitative  stand- 
point, with  the  infection  carried  from  person  to  person 
by  many  direct  means. 

It  is,  of  course,  true  that  in  coughing,  sneezing  or 
loud  speaking  a  spray  of  often  richly  infected  droplets 
is  discharged.  The  mouth  spray  is  a  local  rain  which 
drops  quickly  to  the  ground,  not  a  general  polution  of 
the  atmosphere.  It  could  not  be  detected  by  any  analyt- 
ical standards,  and  could  not  be  remedied  by  ventilation. 
It  is  a  kind  of  direct  contact  rather  than  a  problem  of  air 
pollution. 

The  really  important  factors  which  make  for  health 
or  disease  in  the  atmosphere  are  physical  rather  than 
chemical  or  bacteriological.  From  this  standpoint  the 
effect  upon  vitality  is  great,  not  only  of  the  air  we 
breathe,  but  of  the  air  which  surrounds  our  bodies. 

The  chief  factors  in  air  conditioning  for  the  living 
machine,  which  in  most  cases  far  outweigh  all  others 
put  together,  are  the  temperature  and  humidity  of  the 
air.  It  is  a  curious  instance  of  the  way  in  which  we 
neglect  the  obvious  practical  things  and  attend  to  the  re- 
mote and  theoretical  ones,  that  for  years  more  attention 
has  been  bestowed  on  the  testing  of  air  for  carbon  di- 
oxide, which  was  supposed  to  indicate  some  mysterious 
danger,  than  on  the  actual  concrete  effects  of  overheat- 
ing. Yet  heat,  and  particularly  heat  combined  with  ex- 
cessive humidity,  is  the  one  condition  in  air  that  has 
been  proved  beyond  a  doubt  to  be  universally  a  cause 
of  discomfort,  inefficiency  and  disease.  Fluegge  and 
his  pupils  in  Germany,  and  Haldane  in  England  have 
shown  that  when  the  temperature  rises  to  80  degrees 
with  moderate  humidity  or  much  above  70  degrees  with 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING          205 

high  humidity,  depression,  headache,  dizziness  and  the 
other  symptoms  associated  with  badly  ventilated  rooms 
begin  to  manifest  themselves.  At  78  degrees  with  sat- 
urated air,  Haldane  found  that  the  temperature  of  the 
body  itself  began  to  rise.  The  wonderful  heat  regulating 
mechanism  which  enables  us  to  adjust  ourselves  to  our 
environment  had  broken  down  and  actual  state  of  fever 
had  set  in.  Overheating  and  excess  of  moisture  is  the 
very  worst  condition  existing  in  the  atmosphere  and  the 
very  commonest. 

Excessive  humidity  in  the  air  works  harm  in  two 
ways.  At  a  temperature  of  above  70  degrees  the  body 
must  rely  largely  on  evaporation  of  the  water  of  per- 
spiration for  maintaining  its  normal  temperature. 

If  the  temperature  be  below  68  degrees,  on  the 
other  hand,  an  excess  of  moisture  may  exert  deleterious 
effects  of  a  precisely  opposite  kind.  Under  these  con- 
ditions the  body  tends  to  cool  too  rapidly  rather  than 
too  slowly,  and  the  secretion  of  perspiration  ceases.  The 
moisture  in  the  air  no  longer  has  any  heating  effect, 
but  on  the  other  hand,  its  presence  raises  the  specific 
heat  of  the  atmosphere,  increases  the  amount  of  heat 
a  given  volume  of  air  will  take  up  from  the  body  by 
conduction  or  convection,  and  thus  directly  exerts  a 
cooling  influence  on  the  body. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  atmosphere  which  contains 
too  little  moisture  is  also  undesirable.  We  have  very 
little  sound  scientific  knowledge  about  the  physical  effect 
of  dry  air  and  much  that  is  written  by  extremists  on  the 
subject  is  without  solid  basis.  Many  persons  can,  how- 
ever, testify  to  the  discomfort  they  experience  in  steam 
heated  rooms  and  it  is  probable,  as  Prof.  H'ough  has 
stated,  that  "this  is  due  to  the  too  rapid  evaporation  of 
water  from  the  skin  and  air  passages.  The  skin  thereby 
becomes  dry  and  tends  to  chap,  cutaneous  nerves  are  irri- 
tated in  an  unpleasant  manner,  with  more  or  less  disturb- 
ance of  affairs  in  the  central  nervous  system. 

Finally,  dust  particles  in  the  air  have  a  distinct  and 
well  established  physiological  significance,  not  as  possible 
carriers  of  disease  germs,  but  from  their  direct  physical 
effect  upon  the  tissues  of  the  eye  and  nose  and  throat. 
The  normal  membranes  of  the  body  are  usually  able  to 
defend  themselves  against  invading  microbes,  but  when 


206  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

lacerated  and  injured  by  sharp  dust  particles,  tubercle 
bacilli,  which  are  latent  in  many  lungs,  and  the  germs 
of  minor  diseases  and  inflammations  which  are  present 
in  all  normal  throats,  quickly  gain  the  upper  hand.  The 
statistics  of  tuberculosis  in  various  industries  offer  the 
clearest  evidence  of  this,  for,  in  the  trades  like  grinding 
and  granite  cutting  where  the  workers  are  exposed  to 
large  quantities  of  dust,  the  tuberculosis  death  rate  may 
be  four  or  five  times  the  normal.  Physicians  have  often 
testified,  though  without  definite  statistical  evidence,  to 
the  relation  between  dust  storms  and  diseases  of  the  eye 
and  naso-pharynx  and  to  the  beneficial  effects  of  oiling 
the  streets  and  preventing  the  dust  from  flying.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  dust  in  the  air  of  a  room  may 
exercise  a  considerable  harmful  effect. 

It  might  be  thought  from  what  has  been  said  above 
that  the  determination  of  carbon  dioxide  could  be  en- 
tirely dispensed  with,  and  some  hygienists  have  taken 
that  position.  Personally  I  am  not  prepared  to  grant 
that  under  actual  conditions  of  occupancy,  no  change 
of  air  is  necessary,  even  if  the  temperature  be  kept  down. 
It  may  be  granted  that  in  the  laboratory  rebreathed  air 
has  not  been  shown  to  be  harmful  when  the  effects  of 
heat  and  humidity  are  eliminated.  Under  practical  con- 
ditions, however,  it  is  generally  true  that  with  stale  air, 
carbon  dioxide  and  heat  and  humidity  and  odors  all 
increase  progressively,  though,  of  course,  not  all  neces- 
sarily in  the  same  ratio.  The  practical  method  of  dealing 
with  all  these  conditions  is  to  change  the  air;  and  the 
change  has  an  effect  upon  comfort  which  can  not  be 
measured  by  a  theremometer. 

Where  there  are  no  air  currents  the  hot,  moist, 
vitiated  air  from  the  body  clings  round  us  like  an  "aerial 
blanket,"  as  Professor  Sedgwick  has  named  it,  and  each 
individual  is  surrounded  by  a  zone  of  concentrated  dis- 
comfort. The  delightful  sensation  of  walking  or  riding 
against  a  wind  is  largely  due,  perhaps,  to  the  dispersion 
of  this  foul  envelope,  and  Prof.  Hill's  experiment  with 
the  fan  in  his  closed  chamber  shows  how  striking  this 
effect  may  be.  Under  working  conditions  (except  where 
electric  fans  are  used  in  summer)  it  is  the  slow  or  rapid 
entrance  of  fresh  air  from  without  that  breaks  up  this 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING          20? 

blanket  of  foul  air.  Change  of  air  is  therefore  practically 
necessary. 

In  regard  to  temperature  there  is  one  standard  which 
can  be  fixed  with  confidence.  It  is,  I  think,  quite  certain 
that  the  temperature  of  the  ordinary  thermometer  should 
never,  under  any  circumstances,  be  permitted  to  pass 
70  degrees  F.  The  lower  limit  for  persons  with  ordinary 
light  clothing  should  probably  be  placed  at  66  degrees  F., 
for  just  below  this  point,  as  Sedwwick  and  Hough  have 
emphasized,  there  is  a  likelihood  of  gradual  and  un- 
noticed chilling  of  a  dangerous  kind. 

In  regard  to  humidity  it  is  not  possible  to  speak  with 
the  same  certainty  in  the  light  of  present  knowledge.  If 
the  temperature  be  maintained  between  66  and  /O  de- 
grees a  relative  humidity  of  about  70  per  cent  may  be 
considered  as  a  maximum  beyond  which  it  is  undesirable 
to  go.  A  lower  limit  may  perhaps  be  tentatively  set  at  60 
per  cent. 

A  standard  for  permissible  dustiness  is  quite  beyond 
the  present  range  of  our  knowledge.  Dr.  Soper  in  the 
studies  made  in  connection  with  the  New  York  subway 
found  52  mg.  of  dust  per  1,000  cubic  feet  of  air  as  an 
average  for  the  street  air  of  New  York.  If  more  than 
50  mg.  of  .dust  are  found  per  1,000  cubic  feet  of  air,  the 
condition  is  worse  than  that  which  obtains  in  the  streets 
of  New  York,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  an  enclosed 
room  should  not  be  kept  freer  from  dust  than  the  air  of 
a  city  street. 

The  standard  for  carbon  dioxide  should  be  made 
a  fairly  liberal  one  in  view  of  the  fact  that  it  is  to  be 
used  not  as  an  index  of  any  mysterious  poison,  but  sim- 
ply as  a  measure  of  air  change.  Taking  the  normal  for 
city  air  at  .04  per  cent,  it  seems  reasonable  to  allow  an 
increase  to  .12  per  cent  or  three  times  the  normal.  This 
is  the  standard  suggested  in  recent  English  reports  for 
several  classes  of  factories  and  established  for  the  gar- 
ment shops  of  New  York  by  the  joint  board  of  sanitary 
control  in  the  cloak,  suit  and  skirt  industry.  It  means 
an  allowance  of  700  cubic  feet  of  air  per  person  per  hour, 
about  one-fourth  of  what  is  required  by  ordinary 
mechanical  standards  of  ventilation,  so  that  it  certainly 
cannot  be  considered  excessive. 

There  is    one  point    which  may,    perhaps,    be    em- 


208  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

phasized  in  closing,  although  it  is  not  a  question  of 
standards.  That  is  the  importance  or  "perflation,"  or 
the  complete  flushing  out  of  a  room  at  intervals  with 
vigorous  drafts  of  fresh,  cool  air.  The  gradual  air 
change  accomplished  by  ventilation  is  not  nearly  as 
effective  from  the  physiological  standpoint  as  the  open- 
ing of  windows  for  five  minutes.  A  gale  of  wind  not 
only  brings  general  coolness,  but  it  breaks  up  the  aerial 
blanket  and  gives  a  new  mental  tone  to  mind  and  body 
which  can  be  attained  in  no  other  way. 

VENTILATING  FANS. 

Fans  for  theater  ventilation  may  be  divided  into  two 
general  classes:  those  used  for  exhausting  the  interior 
(known  as  "exhausters")  and  the  class  commonly  met 
with  in  stores  and  offices  known  as  desk  and  ceiling  fans, 
whose  duty  is  merely  to  circulate  the  the  same  air  around 
the  room,  over  and  over  again.  The  first  class,  or  the 
"exhausters"  insures  a  positive  supply  of  fresh  air  at 
all  times  since  the  vacuum  produced  by  them  causes 
fresh  air  to  enter  the  theater  from  out  of  doors,  both 
through  the  open  doors  and  the  cracks  and  crevices  in 
the  building.  In  general,  both  types  are  necessary  for 
the  comfort  of  the  audience,  especially  during  hot 
weather,  for  the  exhauster  rids  the  theater  of  objectional 
odors,  and  the  fan  cools  by  evaporating  the  perspiration 
of  the  body. 

DESK   FANS    (WALL   FANS). 

As  a  general  rule,  the  deck  fans  are  mounted  on 
brackets  above  the  heads  of  the  audience,  and  are  ar- 
ranged so  that  the  air  stream  is  directed  down  and 
towards  the  curtain  (in  case  the  screen  is  located  at 
the  rear  end  of  the  room).  They  should  be  controlled 
by  means  of  a  switch  or  speed  regulator  located  in  the 
opening  booth  so  that  the  operator  can  slow  them  down 
or  cut  them  out  during  a  song  or  vaudeville  act. 

While  the  fans  do  not  require  much  attention,  they 
should  be  examined  occasionally  to  determine  the  con- 
dition of  the  brushes  and  commutaters,  and  to  supply 
fresh,  clean  oil.  All  makes  of  fans  are  of  the  "self- 
oiling"  type,  but  the  reservoirs  should  be  cleaned  out  and 
refilled  at  least  once  every  month. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING          209 

Never  allow  the  brushes  to  spark,  either  readjust 
them,  or  supply  new '  ones,  should  they  be  worn  too 
short.  Sparking  brushes  soon  destroy  the  commutator 
and  cause  costly  repairs.  If  the  brushes  are  not  the 
cause  of  the  sparking  examine  the  commutator,  remove 
the  dirt,  and  smooth  with  very  fine  sand  paper  (not 
emery).  At  the  end  and  beginning  of  the  season  clean 
the  fans  thoroughly  by  washing  the  armature  in  gaso- 
line, a  process  that  will  remove  the  destructive  lubricat- 
ing oil  from  the  insulation. 

The  fan  circuit  should  be  entirely  independent  of 
the  lighting  and  projector  circuit  except  in  very  small 
houses. 

EXHAUSTERS. 

It  is  usual  to  install  exhaust  fans  in  a  circular  open- 
ing at  the  rear  end  of  the  hall,  so  that  the  air  is  drawn 
from  the  doors  and  over  the  heads  of  the  audience.  Like 
the  wall  fans,  the  exhauster  should  be  provided  with  an 
independent  circuit,  and  speed  regulating  device,  the 
latter  to  be  installed  in  the  operator's  booth.  The  regu- 
lation of  the  exhauster  is  of  much  more  importance  than 
that  of  the  wall  fans  since  it  draws  a  much  greater  cur- 
rent. During  periods  of  light  attendance,  the  fan  speed 
may  be  reduced,  thus  obtaining  a  considerably  smaller 
power  bill. 

A  rough  table,  which  actually  is  nothing  but  a  table 
of  comparative  values  of  capacity  and  outputs,  fol- 
lows. The  outputs  and  powers  vary  considerably  among 
different  makers  for  the  same  diameter  of  fan,  since 
the  blading  and  speeds  differ.  A  fan  is  always  listed 
according  to  its  diameter,  a  factor  that  has  really  a  small 
amount  to  do  with  the  capacity: 

Power  in         Revs,  per      Cu.  ft.  per  hour 
Diameter       kilowatts  minute         of  air  removed 

12  0.05  1000  62,000 

16  0.07  900  70,000 

18  0.10  750  110,000 

24  0.20  600  300,000 

30  0.35  500  400,000 

36  0.45  450  700,000 

42  0.550  360  820,000 

48  0.650  300  1,000.000 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

COLORED    PICTURES STEREOSCOPIC    PICTURES — TALKING 

PICTURES PRINCIPAL    METHODS    OF 

COLORING    IN    BRIEF. 

One  of  the  earliest  and  most  commonly  adopted 
methods  of  coloring  both  still  and  moving  pictures  is  by 
the  means  of  a  brush  and  water  colors,  the  various  col- 
ors being  applied  by  hand.  That  this  is  a  tedious  pro- 
cess, and  that  it  requires  considerable  skill  requires  no 
further  comment,  the  fact  that  millions  of  dollars  have 
been  spent  in  the  attempt  to  produce  the  colors  mechani- 
cally or  chemically  is  sufficient  proof. 

While  it  is  not  particularly  an  expensive  matter  to 
hand  color  a  few  lantern  slides  or  photographs,  the  ex- 
pense is  nearly  prohibitive  in  the  case  of  motion  picture 
films  where  the  number  of  pictures  run  into  the  thous- 
ands, and  where  it  is  necessary  to  work  correctly  within 
1-500  of  an  inch. 

As  an  example  of  the  labor  required  to  hand  color 
a  reel  of  1,000  feet  of  film,  we  will  state  that  this  single 
reel  contains  16,000  pictures,  each  picture  being  not 
much  larger  than  a  postage  stamp.  To  apply  three  colors 
within  the  limits  of  1x^4  inches  by  a  brush  requires  skill 
and  patience  of  no  mean  order,  and  when  one  realizes 
that  each  print  produced  must  go  through  the  same  pro- 
cess, since  it  is  impossible  to  print  colors  from  a  colored 
negative,  we  can  easily  see  why  the  hand  colored  films 
were  almost  withdrawn  from  the  market. 

Hand  coloring  requires  great  accuracy,  if  it  is  to  be 
acceptable  when  projected,  for  when  the  picture  is  mag- 
nified from  200  to  240  times  its  original  dimensions,  the 
smallest  error  in  applying  the  color  is  made  painfully 
apparent.  An  error  of  1-64  of  an  inch  on  the  picture 
will  bring  the  color  four  inches  away  from  whore  it 
belongs  on  the  screen. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          211 

To  produce  colored  pictures  at  a  reduced  cost,  the 
iilm  manufacturers  soon  devised  a  semi-automatic  method 
of  coloring  by  means  of  stencils,  a  system  that  is  much 
used  today.  The  stencils  are  cut  from  heavy  paper  to 
the  outlines  of  the  figures  on  the  film,  a  separate  stencil 
being  used  for  each  color  on  the  separate  pictures. 
There  being  three  colors,  each  picture  requires  three 
stencils,  and  as  the  figures  are  in  different  positions  on 
each  of  the  small  photographs,  there  are  nearly  as  many 
sets  of  stencils  as  there  are  photographs  on  the  film. 
The  method  of  cutting  and  applying  the  stencils  will  be 
described  further  on  in  this  section. 

Processes  by  which  the  natural  colors  could  be  pro- 
duced directly  upon  the  film  by  photographic  means  were 
proposed  early  in  the  history  of  the  motion  picture,  but 
few  of  these  were  found  practicable.  In  all  of  these  in- 
ventions, the  natural  colors  of  the  object  photographed 
were  separated  into  their  primary  colors,  and  each  color 
was  recorded  either  on  a  separate  film  or  upon  a  separ- 
ate photograph  on  the  same  film.  The  Kinemacolor  sys- 
tem is  an  example  of  the  latter  process. 

It  was  soon  found  that  it  was  impracticable  to  use 
all  of  the  seven  primary  colors  upon  a  single  film  be- 
cause of  additional  film  area  required  by  so  many  separ- 
ate photographs,  consequently  the  number  of  colors  were 
reduced  to  two  or  three,  an  approximation  that  was  very 
close  to  the  results  obtained  by  use  of  the  entire  spec- 
trum. In  nearly  every  case  the  colors  were  separated  by 
passing  the  lens  rays  through  colored  glasses,  blue,  yel- 
low and  red  rays  being  obtained  by  the  use  of  blue,  yel- 
low and  red  glasses.  After  passing  the  rays  through  the 
colored  glasses,  commonly  called  "Filters,"  each  color 
was  projected  on  the  film  as  a  separate  picture. 

After  development,  the  pictures  obtained  by  this 
process  greatly  resembled  the  ordinary  black  and  white 
film,  as  there  was  no  color  visible  on  the  negative,  but 
when  the  prints  were  passed  through  a  projector,  espec- 
ially equipped  with  colored  filters,  the  pictures  appeared 
in  their  natural  tints  on  the  screen.  By  means  of  special 
shutters,  etc.,  the  images  containing  the  red  portions  of 
the  objects  were  passed  through  the  red  filters ;  the  light 


212  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

from  the  images  taken  behind  the  blue  filter  in  the  camera 
was  passed  through  the  blue  filter  on  the  projector,  and 
so  on,  each  color  appearing  in  its  proper  place  on  the 
screen.  Each  color  on  the  object  was  photographed 
separately  and  then  projected  separately  through  a  suit- 
ably colored  filter. 

Two  different  methods  have  been  adopted  for  pro- 
jecting the  separate  photographs  upon  the  screen,  one 
being  known  as  "Simultaneous  Projection"  and  the  other 
as  "Alternate  Projection."  The  Kinemacolor  is  a  ma- 
chine using  alternate  projection. 

In  simultaneous  projection  all  of  the  colors  on  the 
film  are  projected  at  one  time,  the  tints  differing  slightly 
from  the  filter  colors  being  produced  by  the  overlapping 
portions  of  the  various  colored  images.  If  blue,  yellow 
and  red  filters  were  used  in  the  projector,  a  green  tint 
would  be  obtained  by  the  edges  of  the  yellow  photograph 
overlapping  the  edges  of  the  blue  image.  A  brown  would 
be  obtained  by  the  overlapping  of  the  yellow  and  red, 
and  so  on.  As  can  be  imagined,  quite  accurate  adjust- 
ment was  required  in  order  to  have  each  picture  register 
at  exactly  the  right  point  on  the  screen. 

Another  method,  the  alternate,  is  the  projection  of 
each  picture  alternately,  or  one  at  a  time  upon  the  screen. 
If  the  separate  pictures  follow  one  another  rapidly,  the 
effect  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  obtained  by  simultan- 
eous projection.  This  is  based  upon  the  same  funda- 
mental principle  as  that  of  the  motion  picture ;  i.  e.,  per- 
sistence of  vision.  If  a  green  image  is  rapidly  succeeded 
by  a  red  image,  the  eye  still  retains  the  impression  of  the 
green  image  at  the  time  that  the  red  image  appears  on 
the  screen,  thus  obtaining  a  combined  impression  of  the 
two  colors.  If  certain  portions  of  both  the  red  and  green 
images  occupy  the  same  place  on  the  screen,  the  effect  is 
exactly  the  same  as  that  obtained  by  overlapping  in  simul- 
taneous projection.  This  method  requires  two  and  one- 
third  times  the  speed  used  either  with  the  black  and  white 
pictures  or  with  simultaneous  projection. 

PATHE'S  STENCIL  COLORING  METHOD. 

The  method  adopted  by  Pathe  Freres,  Paris,  is  an 
example  of  experience  and  ingenuity  in  coloring  motion 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          213 

picture  films.  The  method  is  very  nearly  automatic,  and 
that  part  of  the  process  requiring  hand  labor  can  easily 
be  performed  by  comparatively  cheap  labor. 

In  viewing  a  scene,  the  eye  not  only  notes  the  out- 
lines of  the  objects  but  notes  the  colors  and  shading  as 
well,  the  total  mental  effect  being  composed  of  simul- 
taneous impressions  of  color  and  form.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  the  common  black  and  white  pictures  lack 
a  vital  element  in  creating  what  otherwise  would  be  a 
perfect  illusion.  Not  only  is  the  illusion  of  the  picture 
affected  by  a  lack  of  color,  but  the  effect  on  the  eyes  of 
the  spectators  is  made  a  matter  of  importance,  because 
of  the  eyestrain  occasioned  by  the  glaring  contrasts  of 
the  black  and  white  shadows  and  high  lights. 

While  there  are  now  many  makes  of  colored  pic- 
tures on  the  market,  the  greater  proportion  of  the 
pictures  shown  are  still  of  the  black  and  white  variety,  a 
condition  caused  principally  by  the  mechanical  difficul- 
ties encountered  in  producing  a  film  containing  more 
than  one  color.  Cost,  difficulty  in  projection,  or  ineffi- 
ciency are  factors  that  have  eliminated  a  host  of  inven- 
tions along  this  line.  It  should  be  understood  in  this 
connection  that  we  are  referring  to  pictures  containing 
two  or  more  distinct  colors  which  by  their  combination 
form  a  number  of  intermediate  shades,  and  not  to  the 
single  colored  "tinted"  or  "monochrome"  films  described 
in  an  early  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   OF  SIGHT. 

In  order  to  fully  understand  the  theory  of  colored 
pictures  it  should  be  noted  that  the  sunlight  (white 
light)  is  composed  of  seven  distinct  colors — violet,  indi- 
go, blue,  green,  yellow,  orange  and  red.  Together, 
these  colors  can  be  resolved  into  the  white  light  from 
which  they  were  separated.  These  seven  colors  are 
known  as  the  "colors  of  the  spectrum,"  or  more  common- 
ly as  the  "colors  of  the  rainbow,"  since  they  appear  dis- 
tinctly in  that  phenomena. 

Color,  as  we  know  it,  is  therefore  the  result  of 
breaking  up  a  beam  of  white  light  in  such  a  way  that 
one  or  more  of  the  primary  colors  (any  number  less 


214  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

than  seven)  are  thrown  out  of  the  main  beam  and  trans- 
mitted to  the  eye.  In  general  there  are  three  ways  of 
breaking  up  the  white  light  beam;  by  reflection,  refrac- 
tion, and  by  transmission,  all  three  of  the  methods  being 
practised  in  nature,  and  at  least  two  of  them  in  motion 
picture  photography. 

SEPARATION   BY  REFLECTION. 

When  looking  at  an  object  upon  which  a  beam  of 
white  light  is  playing,  a  portion  of  the  light  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  surface,  and  the  balance  is  reflected  to 
the  eye.  The  nature  of  the  reflected  light  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  surface,  some  substances  absorb  a 
particular  part  of  the  spectrum  and  reflect  the  rest, 
causing  of  course,  an  impression  of  color.  The  colors 
seen  by  the  eye  are  the  colors  reflected  from  the  sur- 
face. If,  for  example,  an  object  appears  red,  we  know 
that  all  of  the  spectrum  with  the  exception  of  the  red 
has  been  absorbed.  Should  two  or  more  colors  be  re- 
flected, the  result  will  be  an  intermediate  shade  caused 
by  the  combination  of  the  reflected  colors. 

SEPARATION    BY    REFRACTION. 

When  a  beam  of  white  light  strikes  a  transparent 
body  at  an  angle  with  its  surface,  the  beam  is  broken 
up  into  its  seven  primary  colors,  forming  a  band  of  col- 
ors called  the  "spectrum."  In  nature  the  spectrum  is 
seen  in  the  rainbow,  the  light  in  this  case  being  broken 
up  by  sun  rays  striking  the  surfaces  of  the  raindrops 
from  which  the  various  colors  are  refracted  to  the  eye. 
In  practice,  the  spectrum  is  usually  obtained  by  means 
of  a  triangular  glass  prism  on  which  a  slanting  ray  of 
white  light  is  allowed  to  fall. 

Color  separation  by  the  prism  or  raindrop  is  caused 
by  the  difference  in  velocity  or  wave  length  of  the  dif- 
ferent colored  rays,  the  higher  velocity  rays  being  thrown 
at  one  end  of  the  spectrum  band,  and  the  lower  velocity 
rays  at  the  other.  Since  the  two  velocity  extremes  are 
found  in  the  violet  and  red  rays,  it  is  evident  that  they 
will  be  found  at  opposite  ends  of  the  spectrum,  with 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING          215 

the  remaining  seven   colors   arranged   in  the  order  of 
their  velocities. 

In  color  photography,  the  method  of  refraction  has 
been  but  little  used  up  to  the  present  time,  but  since  it 
is  a  simple  means  of  separating  and  recording  every  pos- 
sible color  contained  in  white  light,  it  will  undoubtedly 
come  into  use  in  the  future. 

COLOR   SEPARATION   BY  TRANSMISSION. 

When  light  is  passed  through  transparent  bodies, 
such  as  sheets  of  glass,  it  is  seldom  that  the  transmitted 
light  (the  light  passed  through  the  sheet)  is  of  the  same 
color  as  the  original  beam.  Different  chemical  composi- 
tions transmit  varying  proportions  of  the  primary  colors, 
the  glasses  reflecting  some  of  the  rays  and  transmitting 
others.  By  varying  the  composition  cf  the  glass  it  is 
possible  to  stop  the  transmission  of  any  desired  ray  or 
rays  and  to  reflect  the  balance.  This  explains  the  dif- 
ference in  color  obtained  by  viewing  a  glass  or  fluid  by 
reflected  light,  and  then  by  holding  the  glass  between  the 
eyes  and  light  and  obtaining  a  view  of  the  transmitted 
beam.  Often  a  glass  will  appear  greenish  blue  by  a  re- 
flected beam,  and  prove  a  ruby  red  by  transmitted  light. 
There  are  many  fluids  that  exhibit  the  properties  of  the 
glass  just  mentioned,  a  striking  case  being  that  of  a 
saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  quinine. 

The  film  to  be  colored  is  mounted  between  two 
reels  in  a  chamber,  the  top  of  which  is  part  of  the  work- 
ing table  and  contains  a  ground-glass  window  on  to 
which  is  projected,  by  the  light  of  a  Nernst  lamp,  an 
enlarged  image  of  the  picture  being  dealt  with  at  that 
moment.  The  operator  decides  which  portions  of  this 
picture  are  to  be  dyed,  say  red,  and  then,  round  these 
portions,  she  guides  a  stylus  carried  by  a  pantograph 
link  work  which  is  so  proportioned  that  the  motion  of 
the  tracing  stylus  is  reduced  in  exactly  the  same  ratio  as 
the  film  picture  is  magnified  on  the  ground-glass  screen. 
The  reproducing  point  of  the  pantograph  consists  of  a 
fine  needle  which  is  vibrated  up  and  down  by  the  in- 
genious mechanism  roughly  sketched  in  Fig.  59.  The 
winged  plate  SS,  carried  by  a  vertical  spindle,  is  rotat- 
ed by  the  attraction  of  MM  when  the  latter  are  excited. 
Hitherto,  the  tiny  connecting  rod  C  (which  has  ball  joints 
at  each  end),  has  been  in  an  oblique  position;  but  the 


216          MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 

rotation  of  SS  forces  C,  to  approach  a  vertical  position 
thus  thrusting  down  the  block  B,  and  hence,  through  a 
sleeve  coupling,  the  stencil  cutting-needle  N.  The  de- 
flection of  S  automatically  breaks  the  field  circuit  of  MM 
and,  the  moving  parts  being  spring  controlled,  there  is 
secured  a  rapid  vibration  of  N,  which  is  maintained  so 
long  as  a  master  contact  is  closed  by  the  tracing  style  be- 
ing held  down  against  the  glass-tracing  screen. 

The  whole  of  the  mechanism  outlined  in  Fig.  59  is 
carried  by  one  of  the  pantograph  bars  so  that  the  ar- 
rangements made  to  vibrate  N  in  no  way  effect  the 
movement  of  the  latter  as  the  reproducing  style  of  the 
pantograph.  A  blank  film  is  clamped  beneath  N  and, 
on  proceeding  as  above,  there  is  punctured  on  the  stencil 
film  a  series  of  very  closely  adjacent  holes  which  mark  out 
the  actual  size  and  position  of  those  portions  of  the 
positive  film  which  the  operator  has  selected  for  red 
coloration.  This  being  done,  the  positive  and  the  stencil 
films  are  moved  forward  one  picture-pitch  by  a  simple 
wheel  and  ratchet  gear  and  the  operation  is  repeated. 

Finally,  the  detachable  portions  of  the  stencil  are 
cleared  away  by  aid  of  a  pointed  style  and  the  finished 
stencils  (and  the  pieces  removed),  present  the  appearance 
shown  in  Fig.  60.  The  beautifully  sharp  edges  of  the 
stencils  are  remarkable. 

One  stencil  is  cut  for  each  color  to  be  applied  to 
each  picture  so  that,  for  a  three-color  film  48,000  and 
for  a  seven-color  film  112,000  stencils  have  to  be  cut 
for  each  1,000  feet  of  positive  film. 

To  dye  films  for  exhibition  is  a  simple  matter  once 
the  stencils  have  been  cut.  The  film  is  pressed  in  close 
contact  with  the  stencil  and  is  passed  beneath  an  auto- 
matically-fed dye-band.  Thick  aniline  dyes  are  used 
and  the  film  can  be  passed  direct  on  to  the  receiving 
spool  without  preliminary  drying.  The  whole  dyeing 
machine  is  driven  by  a  1/3-1/4  h.p.  electric  motor  and 
the  film  is  passed  through  it  from  three  to  seven  times 
(according  to  the  number  of  colors  selected),  the  ap- 
propriate dye  and  stencil  being  used  in  each  case. 
Usually  about  100  films  can  be  made  from  one  set  of 
stencils  before  the  latter  begin  to  show  signs  of  wear. 

This,  briefly,  is  the   process   by   which    Pathe-color 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 


217 


films  are  prepared  and  we  have  described  it  in  some 
detail  since  it  is  as  ingenious  as  it  is  successful. 


Even  with  the  photographic  system  in  which  each 
color  is  recorded  by  a  separate  picture,  the  production  of 
color  is  attended  with  great  trouble  and  expense,  so 
great,  in  fact,  that  there  are  at  the  present  time  but  few 
systems  that  have  proven  a  commercial  success.  Pecul- 
iar mechanical  and  photographic  factors  as  well  as 
lighting  and  physiological  difficulties,  not  understood  by 


Figs.   59  and  60 — Pathe   Stencil   Cutter. 

the  average  experimenter,  have  reduced  an  innumerable 
host  of  color  patents  to  three  or  four  indifferently  work- 
ing machines. 

The  very  fact  that  the  use  of  three  colors  requires 
three  times  the  length  of  film  used  in  projecting  black 
and  white  pictures  suggests  that  the  expense  of  film  is 
greatly  increased  and  that  the  machine  is  required  to 
operate  at  three  times  the  speed  to  project  the  same 
subject,  thereby  increasing  the  wear  and  tear  on  the 
projector.  With  two  colors,  one  third  less  film  is  re- 
quired than  with  three  colors,  but  the  amount  of  film 


218  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 

is  still  excessive,  and  the  projection  is  not  as  effective 
as  it  might  be  owing  to  the  loss  of  an  intermediate 
primary  color. 

Attempts  to  reduce  the  length  of  film  by  photograph- 
ing all  three  colors  directly  upon  a  single  picture  have 
been  made  from  the  first,  but  while  fairly  successful 
with  still  life  photography  this  method  has  proved  an 
utter  failure  in  motion  picture  work.  The  great  mag- 
nification of  the  projection  lens  made  the  use  of  starch 
granules  and  prismatic  oilings  useless. 

Because  of  the  distortion  in  the  light  rays  caused  by 
the  filter  glasses,  and  the  impossiblity  of  obtaining  per- 
fect mechanical  adjustment  in  the  camera  and  projector 
it  has  been  very  difficult  to  exactly  superimpose  the  two 
colored  images  upon  one  another  on  the  screen.  This 
error  creates  a  "fringe"  of  color  around  the  most  prom- 
ment  objects  very  similar  in  effect  to  that  noticed  in 
cheap  color  printing  where  the  colors  are  "out  of  regis- 
ter" and  overlap  one  another.  Fringing  is  one  of  the 
most  apparent  and  disagreeable  failings  of  the  color 
photographic  process  for  the  continual  shifting  and  color 
changes  in  the  outlines  has  the  combined  effect  of  shut- 
ter fluttter  and  rain.  In  addition  a  heavily  fringed  pic- 
ture has  the  appearance  of  being  out  of  focus. 

Two  color  pictures  in  which  only  red  and  blue-green 
are  used  can  never,  of  course,  be  true  to  nature  in 
regard  to  the  coloring.  True  blue,  one  of  the  com- 
monest of  the  primary  colors  in  nature,  is  entirely  lack- 
ing, with  the  result  that  grass  and  sky  are  shown  in 
practically  the  same  tint.  Purple  with  two  color  pro- 
iection  is  converted  into  a  light  green  while  yellow 
approaches  orange,  the  latter  being  the  product  of  the 
combination  of  the  red  with  the  yellow  component  of 
the  green.  One  of  the  intermediate  colors,  brown,  is 
rendered  beautifully,  however,  and  in  almost  any  de- 
sired shade. 

Another  factor  regulating  the  faithfulness  of  color 
in  any  system  is  that  of  the  light  under  which  the 
pictures  are  taken.  An  intense  light  dims  the  brilliancy 
of  the  color  because  of  the  extent  of  the  high  lights  and 
the  relative  density  of  the  shadows.  Colors  that  appear 
rich  and  full  in  a  subdued  and  diffused  light  become  thin 
and  flat  under  a  brilliant  sun. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING  219 

As  explained  in  a  preceding  chapter,  the  ordinary 
speed  for  black  and  white  projection  is  at  the  rate  of 
sixteen  pictures  per  second.  At  this  speed  the  eye  is 
unable  to  distinguish  the  individual  pictures  and  the 
motion  is  therefore  apparently  continuous.  Unfortu- 
nately this  is  not  rapid  enough  for  two  color  pictures 
shown  in  alternate  projection,  for  at  the  rate  of  sixteen 
per  second  the  eye  is  able  to  distinguish  the  successive 
flashes  of  red  and  blue  light.  As  a  result,  the  strain  on 
the  machine  is  again  increased,  for  the  films  are  not 
only  twice  as  long  but  must  be  run  at  a  speed  of  two 
and  one-third  times  that  of  the  black  and  white  picture. 
Even  at  this  speed  the  independent  colors  may  be  distin- 
guished by  waving  the  hand  between  the  eyes  and  the 
screen,  an  action  that  will  result  in  a  rapid  red  and  green 
flicker  on  the  edge  of  the  hand. 

Two  color  projection  is  limited  to  comparatively  slow 
moving  objects  for  the  reason  that  the  successive  posi- 
tions of  such  objects  are  alternately  registered  on  the 
green  and  red  pictures.  The  projection  of  the  moving 
objects  results  in  a  disagreeable  flicker,  the  entire  surface 
of  the  figure  being  alternately  green  and  red  as  it 
passes  across  the  screen.  A  galloping  horse  for  example 
will  be  shown  with  eight  legs,  four  red  and  four  green. 

Still  another  difficulty  is  encountered  in  direct  color 
photography  with  filters,  that  is  the  impossibility  of 
photographing  through  a  red  glass  with  the  ordinary 
photographic  film.  Every  photographic  amateur  knows 
that  even  the  most  rapid  of  films  are  safe  when  exposed 
to  the  rays  of  a  red  dark-room  lamp,  and  consequently 
can  imagine  the  length  of  time  that  would  be  required 
to  obtain  a  picture  under  these  conditions. 

To  take  motion  pictures  through  a  red  filter  glass 
requires  a  film  that  is  equally  sensitive  to  red,  blue  and 
green  light.  The  solution  of  this  problem  was  one  due 
to  chemistry,  that  is,  the  problem  depended  for  its  solu- 
tion upon  an  emulsion  of  an  entirely  different  character 
from  that  used  in  everyday  photographic  processes,  a 
difficulty  that  was  seemingly  as  near  the  impossible  as  that 
of  obtaining  correct  projection.  This,  however,  was 
finally  mastered  but  at  the  expense  of  an  increase  of 
trouble  in  the  manufacture  of  both  the  film  stock  and  the 
finished  picture,  for  now  the  film  was  sensitive  to  any 


220          MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

form  of  light  and  required  handling  in  an  absolutely  dark 
room,  without  even  the  aid  of  a  ruby  lamp.  A  weak  pic- 
ture taken  under  the  red  lamp  meant  a  preponderance 
of  red  on  the  screen. 

A  film  of  this  character,  known  as  a  "panchromatic" 
film,  is  generally  obtained  by  treating  an  ordinary  emul- 
sion with  a  special  sensitizing  solution,  such  as  pinacyanol 
or  ethyl-violet.  The  exact  proportions  of  such  a  solution 
and  the  details  of  its  application  is  a  trade  secret  care- 
fully suppressed  by  the  makers  of  the  film.  It  is  suf- 
ficient to  mention  that  the  additional  handling,  the  short 
actinic  life  of  the  panchromatic  films,  and  the  difficulty 
experienced  in  handling  it  in  total  darkness  all  contribute 
to  a  great  increase  in  the  cost  of  production. 

FRIESE-GREEN    PROCESS. 

The  Friese-Green  process,  of  which  little  is  yet 
known  commercially,  is  one  of  the  oldest  examples  of 
color  motion  picture  photography.  Two  lenses  are  used, 
both  in  the  camera  and  the  projector,  which  give  two 
screen  images  of  two  colors  each,  the  negative  being  of 
the  three-color  type — red,  green  and  blue.  The  lenses 
act  through  filters  giving  a  black  and  white  negative 
which  reproduces  the  original  colors  by  being  projected 
through  corresponding  filters  in  the  projector.  The  pro- 
jection speed  is  the  same  as  with  the  ordinary  black  and 
white  films,  sixteen  per  second. 

Two  separate  rolls  of  film  are  used  in  the  camera, 
each  roll  being  used  with  independent  lenses,  filters  and 
shift  mechanism,  the  duplicate  parts  being  operated  by 
a  single  crank.  The  two  systems  form  practically  sep- 
arate cameras  as  far  as  the  operation  is  concerned. 

The  two  shutters  open  the  lenses  alternately,  produc- 
ing pictures  alternately  on  the  two  films,  so  that  a  green 
light  in  one  camera  is  succeeded  by  a  blue  light  in  the 
other.  A  further  turn  throws  a  red  image  on  the  first 
film  and  then  a  green  light  on  the  second.  After  this 
part  of  the  revolution  a  blue  light  is  thrown  on  the  first 
film  and  a  red  image  on  the  second.  After  the  above 
reversals  the  cycle  is  repeated  in  the  same  order  over  and 
over  again.  The  filter  is  in  the  the  form  of  a  continuous 
band  that  moves  in  unison  with  the  shutter  so  that  the 
three  colors  are  brought  before  the  films  at  the  required 
moment. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          221 

Like  the  camera,  the  projector  consists  of  two  inde- 
pendent lenses  and  shift  mechanisms  driven  by  one  crank 
with  a  three-color  band  filter.  The  projector  shutters 
and  filter  colors  pass  through  the  light  beam  so  that  the 
images  on  the  two  films  arrive  in  the  same  sequence 
on  the  screen  as  they  did  in  the  camera,  except  that  the 
colors  are  allowed  to  overlap.  That  is,  the  image  from 
the  second  projector  is  thrown  on  the  screen  before  the 
image  from  the  first  is  cut  off.  In  this  way  many  inter- 
mediate tints  are  possible,  and  as  the  colors  merge  one 
into  the  other,  the  danger  of  color  flicker  is  reduced. 
Another  apparent  advantage  of  this  system  is  the  fact  that 
there  is  always  light  on  the  screen  and  consequently  a 
maximum  of  illumination. 

KINEMACOLOR    ( URBAN-SMITH). 

The  Kinemacolor  process,  the  best  known  example 
of  true  color  photography,  employs  two  colors  which  are 
alternately  projected.  The  underlying  principles  of  this 
type  of  machine  were  discussed  in  an  earlier  portion  of 
this  chapter — where  it  will  be  remembered  that  the  color- 
effects  depend  entirely  upon  the  persistence  of  vision. 

Two  colors,  red  and  blue-green,  supplied  by  two  fil- 
ters, supply  the  entire  range  of  effects,  and  without  over- 
lapping, as  in  the  Friese-Green  system.  Whatever  inter- 
mediate tints  are  produced  are  caused  by  overlapping  the 
pictures  mentally.  The  film  itself  is  black  and  white, 
similar  in  appearance  to  an  ordinary  film,  and  is  projected 
at  about  two  and  one-third  times  the  speed  of  the  black 
and  white  film.  As  a  result  of  this  speed  the  projectors 
are  always  driven  by  a  motor,  for  the  work  is  far  beyond 
the  capabilities  of  the  ordinary  operator. 

A  panchromatic  film  is  exposed  by  a  double  shutter 
camera  that  throws  the  light  from  red  and  green  filters 
alternately.  The  pictures  thus  produced  extend  down 
the  center  of  the  film  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  an 
ordinary  film,  except  that  the  pictures  are  alternately 
taken  through  red  and  green  filters.  To  distinguish  the 
green  pictures  from  the  red,  a  small  green  dot  or  dash 
is  stamped  on  the  margin  opposite  each  green  picture, 
so  that  in  case  of  a  break  the  film  .may  be  patched  in  the 
correct  relation. 

In  projecting  this  film  the  beam  of  light  passing 
through  the  successive  pictures  is  alternately  colored 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 

red  and  green  by  a  shutter  that  also  acts  as  a  filter.  The 
green  blade  comes  before  the  beam  when  a  green  picture 
is  in  the  aperture,  and  the  red  blade  enters  when  a  red  pic- 
ture is  in  the  aperture.  As  the  pictures  are  on  a  single 
strip  of  standard  film,  it  is  necessary  to  use  only  a  single 
lens,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  possible  to  run  an  ordinary 
black-white  film  in  the  same  machine  by  cutting  down 
the  speed  and  by  substituting  an  ordinary  shutter. 

Kinemacalor  films  require  much  more  light  than  the 
ordinary  film  because  of  the  intervention  of  the  colored 
shutter. 

The  shutter  is  a  circular  disc  with  two  color  windows 
of  gelatine,  one  red  and  one  green.  The  ordinary  opaque 
shutter  used  for  blacks  and  whites  is  left  on  the  shaft 
with  the  color  shutter  and  serves  to  shut  off  the  light 
when  the  open  spaces  between  the  color  sectors  pass 
the  lens.  A  single  thickness  of  gelatine  is  used  in  each 
sector  with  a  second  sector  thickness  on  the  green  that 
occupies  about  one-half  the  space  of  this  sector.  The  pur- 
pose of  this  additional  thickness  on  the  green  sector  is  to 
regulate  the  relative  proportions  of  the  red  and  green 
light.  When  the  volumes  of  the  red  and  green  light  are 
correctly  proportioned,  a  perfectly  white  light  will  be  pro- 
duced when  the  shutter  is  rotated  without  film  in  the 
aperture  as  red  and  green  are  complementary  colors. 
GAUMONT'S  CHRONOCHROME. 

Gaumont,  the  French  film  producer,  has  recently 
devised  a  direct  color  photographic  system  that  is  said 
to  be  greatly  in  advance  of  any  similar  device  on  the 
market.  From  the  reports  of  European  technical  ex- 
perts, the  inventor  has  completely  overcome  the  loss  of 
color  register  and  illumination  that  have  been  the  despair 
of  other  experimenters.  Because  of  the  late  develop- 
ment of  the  camera  and  projector  it  is  impossible  to 
describe  the  mechanical  features  of  either  the  camera  or 
the  projector. 

The  technical  expert  of  the  London  Bioscope  in  a 
recent  issue  of  that  publication  writes  as  follows  of  the 
chrono-chrome  pictures : 

Briefly  it  may  be  said  that  the  results  of  chrono- 
chrome  are  secured  by  the  simultaneous  photographing 
and  ultimate  projection  of  three  photographs  containing 
the  primary  color  values  in  the  field  before  the  lens.  In 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          223 

previous  experiments  in  the  same  direction  it  has  been 
found  impossible  to  accurately  superimpose  the  three 
color  value  pictures,  each  one,  of  course,  projected 
through  its  respective  color  filter  upon  the  screen.  Messrs. 
Gaumont  have,  however,  completely  overcome  the  dif- 
ficulty, and  as  proof  of  the  simplicity  and  ease  with  which 
the  superimposition  may  be  performed,  it  is  only  nec- 
essary to  record  the  fact  that  in  one  picture  which  was 
unintentionally  thrown  upon  the  screen  with  the  colors 
projected  out  of  register,  they  were  almost  immediately 
and  accurately  superimposed. 

As  in  the  color  system  under  review,  there  is  always 
on  the  screen  (with,  of  course,  the  exception  of  the  inter- 
vals during  the  interception  of  the  shutter)  a  multi-col- 
ored picture,  eye  fatigue  is  conspicuous  by  its  absence, 
as  no  persistence  of  vision  is  necessary  for  the  blending 
of  one  color  into  another,  the  actual  natural  colors  them- 
selves being  displayed.  The  color  effects  are,  therefore, 
not  illusionary,  but  real. 

At  the  demonstration  we  were  afforded  an  oppor- 
tunity of  judging  the  results  of  a  wide  range  of  subjects : 
Flower  studies,  farm  yard  scene,  panoramic  scenes  in 
the  Balearic  Isles,  butterflies,  harvesting  and  others.  In 
all  there  was  nothing  but  admiration  expressed  by  the 
large  audience,  the  flower  and  butterfly  series  perhaps 
calling  for  most  admiration.  Certainly  it  can  be  said  that 
never  before  have  the  myriads  of  nature's  tints  been  so 
faithfully  recorded.  The  bloom  on  the  begonias  and  the 
remarkable  iridescent  tints  on  some  of  the  butterflies  were 
beautiful  and  beyond  anything  we  had  previously  thought 
it  possible  to  obtain  by  photographic  means,  while  proof 
that  there  was  no  limitation  to  the  process  was  afforded 
upon  the  projection  of  the  harvesting  scenes  and  views 
of  the  Riviera — faithful  reproductions  of  nature. 

One  test  for  color  process  is  white  and  the  remark- 
able purity  of  this  was  shown  in  the  last  picture,  intro- 
ducing the  tricolor  and  Union  Jack,  both  of  which,  flut- 
tering in  the  breeze,  stood  but  in  apparent  relief  as  if  no 
photographic  medium  were  used. 

PRODUCTION  OF  COLOR  IN  STILL  PICTURES. 
In  my  opinion,  many  of  the  color  photographic  pro- 
cesses that  have  proved  successful  in  "still"  pictures  could 
be,  with  certain  modifications,  applied  to  motion  picture 


224  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 

films,  especially  as  the  majority  of  these  processes  exhibit 
color  on  transparent  positive  prints.  A  few  of  these  pos- 
sibilities will  be  outlined  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

STARCH  GRANULE  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

An  early  method  of  producing  colors  on  dry  plate 
transparencies  involved  the  use  of  two  glass  plates,  one 
of  which  was' a  clear  transparent  cover  plate  and  the 
other,  a  panchromatically  sensitized  dry  plate.  Over  the 
cover  plate  was  spread  an  intimate  mixture  of  minute 
starch  particles  which  were  fastened  to  the  plate  by  a 
binder  film  of  collodion  or  gelatine.  One-third  of  the 
starch  granules  were  colored  blue,  one-third  were  col- 
ored red,  and  the  remainder  yellow,  and  were  very  thor- 
oughly mixed  before  applying  to  the  plate  so  that  a  red 
particle,  for  instance,  would  be  immediately  adjacent  to 
one  blue  and  one  yellow. 

After  the  starch  plate  was  thoroughly  dried,  it  was 
placed  upon,  and  face  to  face  with  the  dry  plate,  and 
then  inserted  into  the  camera  and  exposed  in  the  ordinary 
way.  After  exposure,  the  starched  cover  plate  was  re- 
moved and  the  dry  plate  developed  in  a  dark  room.  The 
plate  thus  produced  was  in  itself  perfectly  colorless,  but 
when  the  cover  plate  was  replaced  in  exactly  its  original 
position  and  the  two  plates  were  held  up  to  the  light,  all 
of  the  objects  were  shown  in  their  true  colors.  This  re- 
sult is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  colored  starch  particles 
acted  as  minute  filters  both  when  the  picture  was  taken 
and  when  exhibited,  the  red  particles  transmitting  only 
the  red  rays,  the  blue  granules  the  blue  rays,  and  so  on, 
forming  a  typical  three  color  picture.  The  great  diffi- 
culty in  this  system  is  the  great  care  needed  in  exactly 
superimposing  the  granules  in  their  original  position 
after  the  development. 

In  motion  pictures  this  difficulty  would  be  increased 
owing  to  the  necessity  of  a  double  film  that  would  be 
nearly  inflexible  and  which  would  spread  the  surfaces 
every  time  that  they  passed  over  a  sprocket  or  idler. 

COLORED  RULING. 

A  system  very  similar  to  the  starch  granules  is  that 
of  the  three  color  ruled  cover  plate.  The  starch  granules 
in  this  case  are  supplanted  by  very  fine  colored  lines  that 
are  ruled  on  the  cover  plate,  the  lines  being  placed  in 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          225 

very  close  proximity  to  one  another.  The  lines  are  suc- 
cessively, red,  yellow  and  blue  and  are  placed  in  direct 
contact  with  the  sensitized  emulsion  of  the  dry  plate  be- 
fore exposure  and  after  development.  The  difficulties 
would  be  the  same  with  this  system  as  with  the  starched 
plates,  i.e.,  accurate  registration,  and  the  necessity  of  two 
plates  or  films. 

TRIPLE  EMULSION. 

A  system  has  been  proposed  that  involves  a  film  or 
plate  with  a  triple  emulsion  consisting  of  three  chemically 
different  sensitizers  arranged  in  superimposed  layers. 
One  layer  would  record  only  the  red,  the  second  all  of  the 
blue  rays,  and  the  third  only  the  yellow  rays.  After  de- 
velopment, three  staining  baths  would  stain  the  appropri- 
ate layers  with  an  individual  color,  producing  a  direct- 
ly colored  film  similar  to  those  produced  by  hand  paint- 
ing. So  far,  the  proper  chemical  compounds  have  not 
been  discovered  that  would  make  this  system  even  an 
approximate  success,  but  it  is  possible  that  some  research 
in  this  line  would  solve  the  problem  and  eliminate  the 
evils  of  long  films,  excessive  speeds  and  the  inaccuracy 
of  color  filters. 

COLORS  BY  REFRACTION    (SPECTROSCOPIC   PICTURES). 

Pictures  produced  by  refraction,  or  by  a  prism  pro- 
duced spectrum  possess  many  advantages  over  those  pro- 
duced by  other  means : 

1.  All  of  the  seven  primary  colors  are  present  mak- 
ing any  tint  or  shade  possible. 

2.  A  single  picture  could  produce  all  of  the  colors, 
making  long  films  and  a  multiplicity  of  pictures  unnec- 
essary. 

3.  Only  a  single  lens  would  be  required. 

4.  There  would  be  no  filters  required,  and  therefore 
the  registration  would  be  perfect. 

A  method  still  in  its  experimental  stages,  but  which 
seems  to  possess  desirable  properties  is  described  in  the 
following  translation  of  an  article  taken  from  "La  Na- 
ture." It  should  be  understood  that  at  the  present  time 
this  has  only  been  tried  with  still  pictures,  and  that  cer- 
tain modifications  would  be  necessary  when  applied  to 
motion  pictures. 

The  theory  of  the  process  is  a  simple  one.  It  con- 
sists in  producing  by  optical  means  a  surface  composed 


226 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 


of  hundreds  of  complete  but  very  narrow  spectra,  lying 
next  to  one  another,  the  spectra  being  so  close  together 
as  to  render  the  individual  colors  indistinguishable  to  the 
unaided  eye,  so  that  the  surface  appears  to  be  white.  The 
photographic  positive  is  used  as  a  mask  to  block  out 
or  weaken  those  colors  which  are  not  wanted,  the  re- 
mainder combining  to  form  the  picture. 

The  surface,  composed  of  those  contiguous  narrow 
spectra,  is  produced  by  allowing  white  light  to  fall  upon 
a  fine  line  screen,  of  which  the  opaque  lines  are  three 
times  as  wide  as  the  clear  interspaces,  and  forming  an 

focutincj       Screen 
PhofogrophiC    Plo*« 


r«r»».  Un«  .Second 

Objective      Screen      Objective 


Ofl 


Fig.   61 — Diagrammatic  View  of  the  Elements  of  the  Color  Machine. 

image  on  this  screen  by  means  of  a  lens  with  a  prism 
just  in  front  of  it.  The  prism  spreads  each  white  line 
into  a  complete  spectrum,  and  is  so  calculated  that  the 
spectra  lie  next  each  other  on  the  focusing  screen  with- 
out interspace.  If  instead  of  white  light  falling  upon 
the  line  screen  we  allow  colored  light  to  fall  upon  it,  only 
those  spectrum  colors  of  which  the  line  in  question  is 
composed  appear  on  the  focusing  screen,  the  colors  which 
are  wholly  or  partially  missing  from  the  spectrum  of 
white  light  being  represented  by  spaces  wholly  or  par- 
tially dark. 

In  taking  the  photograph  the  image  of  the  colored 
object  is  projected  by  means  of  any  ordinary  objective 
lens  on  to  the  line  screen,  the  image  of  which  is  in  turn 
projected  by  the  second  lens  with  the  prism  in  front  of 
it  on  to  the  photographic  plate  placed  in  the  position  of 
the  focusing  screen.  (Fig.  61  shows  diagrammatically 
the  general  optical  arrangement.)  The  plate  must  be 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND    EXHIBITING 


227 


approximately  equally  sensitive  to  all  colors,  so  that  the 
resulting  negative  is  completely  darkened  when  acted 
upon  by  any  color  in  its  full  intensity,  and  partially  dark- 
ened where  the  incident  color  is  weakened.  A  lantern 
slide  positive  from  this  negative  will,  of  course,  show 
the  reverse  effect,  being  completely  transparent  where 
the  color  has  acted  with  full  intensity,  of  partial  transpar- 
ency where  the  color  has  acted  less  strongly,  and  opaque 
where  the  colors  were  missing,  i.  e.,  in  those  parts  coinci- 
dent in  position  with  the  spectrum  colors  of  white  light 
that  were  not  present  in  the  object  photographed.  When, 
therefore,  this  positive  is  placed  in  the  exact  position  of 
the  negative,  and  white  light  is  projected  through  the  ap- 
paratus, it  acts  as  the  desired  mask  to  block  out  those 


Fig.  62 — Section  Through  Camera. 

colors  that  are  not  wanted,  and  the  picture  is  reproduced 
in  the  original  colors. 

Like  so  many  other  scientific  problems,  however, 
while  the  theory  was  simple,  in  practice,  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  the  construction  of  the  necessary  apparatus  ( Figs. 
62  and  63,  arose  at  every  turn,  and  matters  were  further 
complicated  by  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  camera  with- 
in portable  limits.  To  indicate  one  of  the  main  sources 
of  difficulty,  an  ordinary  glass  prism  produces  a  spec- 
trum widely  extended  in  the  violet  and  blue  region  and 
crowded  up  at  the  yellow  and  red  end,  an  effect  very 
detrimental  to  the  proper  rendering  of  the  latter  colors. 
This  was  overcome  by  the  use  of  a  compound  prism  spe- 
cially computed  to  give  a  spectrum  in  which  the  colors 
are  evenly  distributed,  as  in  a  grating  spectrum.  The 
introduction,  however,  of  a  thick  prism  of  this  kind  in- 
troduced aberrations  of  all  kinds,  both  in  the  images  of 
the  object  and  of  the  spectra,  which  had  to  be  successively 


228 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 


overcome.  It  was,  for  example,  found  necessary  to  place 
the  line  screen  (which  has  372  lines  per  inch)  at  a  slant 
to  bring  the  spectra  all  over  the  field  sharply  into  focus ; 
a  cylindrical  lens  is  used  in  front  of  the  prism  to  correct 
for  astigmatism ;  the  front  of  the  camera  is  placed  at  the 
proper  angle  to  prevent  wedge  distortion;  a  narrow 
prism  behind  the  first  objective  brings  the  object  sharply 


Fig.   63 — Lenses  and  Prisms. 

into  rocus,  and  so  on.  The  objectives  used  in  the  camera 
are  two  75  millimeters,  Zeiss,  micro-planars.  A  field 
lens  is  interposed  between  the  first  objective  and  the 
line  screen  to  direct  the  light  toward  the  second  objective. 
The  whole  optical  system  can  be  slightly  rotated  by  means 
of  a  milled  head  on  the  left  hand  side  of  the  camera  in 
front;  at  the  back  is  another  milled  head  securing  slight 
lateral  movement,  and  a  lever  above  the  viewing  screen 
permits  of  a  slight  backward  or  forward  movement  of 
one-half  millimeter.  These  three  movements  are  neces- 
sary to  enable  the  lantern  plate  to  be  brought  to  the 
exact  position  of  the  negative,  but  correct  registration  is 
easily  secured  in  a  few  seconds — the  readings  can  more- 
over be  noted  on  the  positive. 

Besides  the  method  of  viewing  the  picture  on  the 
focusing  screen  of  the  camera  which  requires  a  strong 
artificial  light  source,  the  pictures  may  also  be  viewed 
direct  on  the  line  screen  by  means  of  a  magnifying  eye 
piece  for  which  purpose  ordinary  daylight  or  a  weak  il- 
luminate suffices.  This  method  in  practise  does  not  how- 
ever yield  quite  such  good  results.  The  pictures  may  be 
projected  up  to  four  feet  in  diameter  on  a  lantern  screen. 

Until  the  advent  of  a  really  good  bleaching  out  paper 
there  is  no  possibility  of  recording  the  photograph  in 
colors  on  paper. 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          229 
STEREOSCOPIC   PICTURES. 

As  the  ordinary  black  and  white  picture  camera  is 
provided  with  but  a  single  lens,  the  pictures  are  unnatural 
to  a  person  who  views  the  same  objects  with  both  eyes 
for  the  reason  that  the  two  eyes  can  embrace  a  greater 
angle  and  therefore  can  see  "farther  around  the  object" 
than  the  lens.  A  picture  taken  with  a  single  lens  is 
"flat,"  that  is,  the  objects  do  not  stand  out  in  prominent 
relief  against  a  flat  and  inconspicuous  background. 

To  obtain  an  impression  similar  to  that  given  by 
eyes  it  would  be  necessary  to  provide  two  pictures  that 
have  been  taken  from  two  different  points  lying  in  a  line 
drawn  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  sight,  corresponding 
to  the  separation  of  the  eyes.  If  these  photographs  were 
now  viewed  independently,  one  with  each  eye,  in  their 
proper  relation,  the  objects  would  appear  in  relief  as  they 
really  do  in  nature.  To  obtain  a  perfect  impression  it 
would  be  necessary  to  place  an  opaque  partition  between 
the  eyes  so  that  the  sight  of  each  eye  would  be  confined 
to  its  proper  picture. 

With  still  pictures,  the  stereoscopic  effect  is  obtained 
with  a  very  familiar  piece  of  apparatus;  at  one  time  ex- 
isting in  nearly  every  home,  called  the  "Wheatstone  Stere- 
oscope." This  consisted  of  a  wooden  frame  on  which 
were  mounted  two  rectangular  lenses,  contained  usually 
in  a  wooden  hood  or  shield  that  fitted  close  to  the  fore- 
head. Opposite  to  the  lenses  was  a  sliding  rack  that 
held  a  double  photograph  (two  pictures  on  one  card), 
which  could  be  viewed  through  the  two  lenses.  On  look- 
ing through  the  lenses  at  the  photos  they  appeared  as  one 
picture,  but  unlike  the  originals,  they  appeared  to  stand 
out  in  bold  relief. 

These  stereoscopic  pictures  were  very  nearly  alike, 
but  had  in  reality  been  taken  by  a  double  lens  camera 
in  which  the  lenses  were  placed  in  the  same  relative  posi- 
tions as  that  of  the  eyes.  The  result  of  this  arrangement 
was  that  the  right  hand  picture  gave  more  of  the  right 
hand  sides  of  the  object  than  the  left  hand,  and  vice 
versa.  As  the  right  eye  saw  only  the  right  hand  picture, 
and  the  left  eye  the  left  hand  picture,  the  natural  condi- 
tions were  reproduced  and  therefore  prominent  relief 
was  obtained. 

Another  method  afterwards  obtained  the  same  re- 


230  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

suit  with  a  single  picture  printed  in  two  colors,  red  and 
green.  The  green  picture  was  printed  from  the  right 
hand  lens  of  a  double  lens  camera,  and  the  red  picture 
with  the  left  hand  lens,  so  that  if  the  two  colors  were 
viewed,  one  with  each  eye,  a  stereoscopic  effect  would  be 
obtained  similar  to  that  of  the  two  photographs  in  the 
"Wheatstone"  instrument.  Viewing  the  picture  directly 
with  both  eyes  without  a  suitable  instrument  for  separat- 
ing the  colors  revealed  a  mass  of  muddled  color  blotches 
having  only  the  slightest  resemblence  to  the  outlines  of 
the  picture  that  they  represented. 

A  pair  of  spectacles  having  one  green  glass  and  one 
red  were  provided,  the  colored  glasses  acting  as  light 
filters  in  separating  the  different  colored  rays.  With  the 
green  glass  over  the  right  eye  and  the  red  glass  over  the 
left,  the  green  and  red  pictures  were  only  visible  to  the 
right  and  left  eyes  respectively.  As  these  pictures  were 
taken  with  a  double  lens  camera,  the  right  eye  saw  that 
part  of  the  object  seen  by  the  right  lens,  and  the  left 
eye  saw  the  impression  of  the  left  hand  lens, — giving  a 
stereoscopic  effect.  Red  and  green  being  complimentary 
colors,  the  total  impression  was  that  of  a  black  and  white 
picture. 

Since  the  ordinary  two  color  motion  pictures  are 
often  taken  with  a  double  lens  camera  it  is  sometimes 
possible  to  obtain  stereoscopic  effects  with  colored  glasses 
as  one  lens  only  takes  greens  and  the  other,  reds.  This 
is  most  prominent  with  the  use  of  alternate  projection. 

Up  to  the  present  time  stereoscopic  pictures  in  black 
and  white  have  not  been  successful  and  even  with  colored 
pictures  the  effects  have  not  been  particularly  prominent 
to  the  naked  eye.  To  obtain  stereoptical  relief  would 
naturally  involve  the  use  of  either  double  films  or  super- 
imposed two  color  photographs  with  their  attendent  evils. 
The  trouble  of  providing  each  person  in  the  audience  with 
special  viewing  glasses  would  alone  prohibit  such  films, 
neglecting  altogether  the  cost  of  producing  the  films. 

TALKING  PICTURES. 

Picture  projectors  interconnected  with  a  phono- 
graph in  such  a  way  that  the  action  and  sound  are  repro- 
duced simultaneously  have  been  proposed  from  the  earli- 
est days  of  the  motion  picture  industry.  Unfortunately 
the  difficulties  met  with  in  the  practical  application  of  this 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          231 

principle  have  proved  unsurmountable  except  in  one  or 
two  cases. 

In  theory,  the  simplest  way  to  make  such  pictures 
would  be  to  place  the  recording  phonograph  and  the 
motion  picture  camera  as  conveniently  as  possible  to  view 
the  scene  and  hear  the  sounds,  and  run  both  of  them 
at  a  constant  speed,  taking  the  two  records  simultane- 
ously. Then  for  rendering  the  records  for  entertainment, 
it  is  necessary  only  to  start  the  two  records,  the  repro- 
ducing phonograph  and  the  positive  picture  film  in  the 
projecting  machine,  simultaneously,  and  to  run  them  at 
their  proper  and  constant  speed. 

This  is  not  so  easy  as  it  appears  at  first.  In  making 
the  records,  the  camera  and  the  recording  phonograph 
would  interfere  with  each  other ;  and  further,  the  require- 
ment of  uniform  speed  is  one  which  is  entirely  theoreti- 
cal ;  we  do  not  have  constant  speed  in  general  practice, 
and  cannot  attempt  to  attain  it  for  theater  projection 
work. 

In  the  song  and  dance,  or  vaudeville  sketch,  which 
seems  to  be  the  most  popular  form  for  "talking  pictures," 
the  movement  of  the  speaker  or  singer  or  dancer  for  the 
effect  in  the  picture  would  act  to  given  a  very  uneven 
phonographic  record. 

To  obtain  a  perfect  picture  of  this  class  it  is  absolute- 
ly necessary  to  obtain  perfect  "synchronism"  in  the  mo- 
tion and  sound,  or  in  other  words,  to  have  the  motion 
and  sound  exactly  "in  step."  The  attainment  of  this 
requisite  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  mak- 
ing talking  pictures.  The  film  and  the  phonograph  must 
start  and  keep  together  throughout  the  length  of  the 
act. 

Exact  synchronism  and  speed  is  made  doubly  difficult 
from  the  fact  that  the  sound  must  proceed  from  the  stage 
or  the  curtain  at  the  front  of  the  house  while  the  pro- 
jector must  of  necessity  be  located  at  the  rear.  This 
great  distance  between  the  mechanisms  of  the  projector 
and  phonograph  makes  a  positive  mechanical  connection 
impossible,  and  therefore  reliance  must  be  placed  on  elec- 
trical or  manual  regulation,  two  rather  erratic  meth- 
ods of  control. 

Another  factor  that  enters  the  problem  is  that  of 
film  breakage,  for  even  should  the  new  film  and  phono- 


232  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING 

graph  record  be  in  perfect  synchronism,  the  absence  of 
a  few  pictures  taken  in  patching  the  film  break  will  throw 
the  machines  out  of  step  by  the  length  of  the  patch. 
The  jumping  of  the  phonograph  needle  will  land  it  in 
a  groove  either  behind  or  in  advance  of  the  projector  and 
again  make  adjustment  necessary. 

The  difference  in  the  length  of  time  taken  to  display 
a  film  and  to  play  the  phonograph  record  requires  the 
individual  synchronizing  of  a  number  of  phonograph 
records,  for  while  a  standard  reel  of  1,000  feet  of  film 
requires  approximately  twenty  minutes,  the  standard 
phonograph  record  only  lasts  from  four  to  five  minutes. 
Hence  from  four  to  five  records  must  be  replaced,  start- 
ed and  stopped  within  the  run  of  the  film  without  loss 
of  synchronism  or  speed!  By  the  use  of  very  large  discs 
or  cylinders  the  time  of  the  phonograph  has  been  ex- 
tended, in  one  case  at  least,  of  fifteen  minutes,  but  this 
still  requires  a  change. 

In  taking  the  pictures,  the  sluggishness  of  the  phono- 
graph and  its  inability  to  record  low  sound  has  limited 
the  application  of  the  talking  pictures  to  singing,  instru- 
mental music,  and  other  sounds  of  comparatively  great 
volume.  In  the  recent  Edison  pictures,  the  phonograph 
records  have  been  made  of  a  specially  sensitive  wax  that 
has  a  considerably  greater  range  in  sound  volume  than 
the  material  supplied  with  the  standard  machines. 

SYNCHRONIZING   METHODS  IN  GENERAL. 

The  earliest  method  of  synchronizing  was  by  unit 
drive,  that  is,  the  projector  and  phonograph  were  built 
in  one  unit,  and  were  driven  by  a  single  motor.  This 
method  would  not  be  the  best  for  theatrical  work,  for  the 
reason  that  the  phonograph  would  of  necessity  be  at  the 
rear  of  the  house  and  away  from  the  screen  where  the 
action  was  taking  place.  As  a  result  this  class  of  ma- 
chine was  confined  to  toy  machines  or  home  projectors 
where  the  distance  to  the  screen  was  comparatively  small. 
By  replacing  the  reproducer  on  the  phonograph  with  a 
telephone  transmitter  and  connecting  this  with  loud 
speaking  telephone  receivers  near  the  screen  it  might  be 
possible  to  overcome  this  defect  of  the  direct  connected 
outfit. 

In  cases  where  the  phonograph  and  projector  are  lo- 
cated at  a  considerable  distance  from  one  another,  syn- 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING          233 

chronism  is  obtained  in  either  one  of  two  ways :  first 
by  manual  or  hand  control,  secondly  by  automatic  devices 
mounted  on  each  of  the  machines,  one  of  which  devices 
controls  the  opposite  machine. 

With  manual  control,  two  index  hands,  one  for 
each  machine,  allows  the  attendant  to  keep  the  film  and 
record  in  the  proper  position  by  watching  the  hands 
and  speeding  up  or  retarding  the  machines  in  relation 
to  one  another.  If  the  film  gets  ahead  of  the  record 
for  example,  owing  to  a  patch,  either  the  projector  is 
reduced  in  speed,  or  the  phonograph  accelerated  until 
the  pictures  are  again  in  synchrony.  As  this  requires 
constant  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  operator,  it 
imposes  too  great  a  strain  on  him,  for  this  is  a  great 
addition  to  his  already  numerous  duties  in  the  operator's 
booth. 

The  automatic  controls  are  usually  operated  elec- 
trically, the  method  in  general  being  to  connect  the  pro- 
jector and  phonograph  motors  on  a  common  circuit.  In 
some  cases,  both  motors  are  run  on  alternating  current 
and  are  of  the  "synchronous"  type,  that  is,  both  motors 
keep  in  step  with  the  pulsations  of  the  current  waves  in 
the  common  circuit.  As  both  motors  are  held  in  step 
with  the  same  waves,  it  is  evident  that  they  not  only 
will  run  at  exactly  the  same  speed  but  will  turn  through 
equal  angles  of  any  one  revolution  in  equal  times. 

Another  system  employs  two  specially  wound  direct 
current  motors  that  are  timed  or  synchronized  by  a  com- 
mutator on  the  projector  motor  that  sends  periodic  cur- 
rent impulses  through  a  common  circuit. 

A  fairly  comprehensive  explanation  of  the  mode  of 
operation  of  the  talking  motion  pictures  expressed  in 
terms  of  a  mechanical  simile  is  given  in  Popular  Me- 
chanics. A  portion  of  it  runs  as  follows :  One  of  the  il- 
lustrations herewith  shows  the  connection  by  means  of 
which  the  motion-picture  machine,  high  up  in  the  gallery 
of  the  theater,  and  the  phonograph,  located  in  a  well  in 
the  stage  just  behind  the  screen  or  curtain,  are  synchron- 
ized, or  made  to  operate  at  the  same  time  and  speed,  so 
that  the  motion  of  the  lips  in  talking  and  singing  may 
be  simultaneous  with  the  utterance  of  the  sound.  Every 
sound  or  noise  made  by  the  persons  producing  material 
for  the  "talking"  pictures  is  caught  by  a  single  phono- 


234 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 


graph  recorder  while  the  motion-picture  camera  is  taking 
the  pictures.  In  reproducing  the  talking  pictures  all  that 
is  necessary  is  to  provide  that  the  phonograph  and  the 
motion-picture  machine  be  run  in  the  same  relation  to 
each  other  as  when  the  pictures  were  made  and  the  sounds 
recorded.  This  is  done  by  mechanically  connecting  the 
motion-picture  projecting  machine  and  the  phonograph  by 
means  of  an  endless  wire  cable  running  over  pulleys. 
The  cable  passes  under  the  floor  of  the  stage,  up  to  the 
top  of  the  proscenium  arch,  and  across  the  upper  regions 


C'QL," 


of  the  theater  by  air  route  to  the  motion-picture  machine. 
Should  the  cable  slip  and  so  throw  the  two  machines  "out 
of  step,"  so  to  speak,  the  operator  of  the  projector  can 
retard  or  increase  the  movement  of  the  pictures  until 
they  are  again  synchronized  with  the  phonograph.  Al- 
though the  sound  seems  to  come  direct  from  the  picture 
of  the  particular  person  or  instrument  represented  as 
producing  it,  no  matter  whether  at  the  right,  the  left,  or 
the  center  of  the  screen,  it  all  actually  comes  from  just 
one  point — the  horn  of  the  phonograph.  That  it  seems 
otherwise  to  the  audience  is  due  to  the  same  illusion  that 
makes  ventriloquism  possible.  The  accompanying  dia- 


MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING    AND    EXHIBITING          235 

gram  illustrates  the  principle.  Referring  to  this  diagram 
two  motion  picture  figures,  going  through  the  facial 
movements  that  accompany  utterance,  would,  one  at  the 
extreme  right  and  the  other  at  the  extreme  left  of  the 
screen,  be  still  close  enough  in  line  with  the  real  source 
of  sound  so  that  the  audience,  a  little  distance  back, 
could  not  tell  from  which  it  was  coming  if  there  were  no 
facial  movements  of  either,  but  "listening"  with  the  eyes 
as  well  as  the  ears,  the  sound  seems  to  come  from  the 
ones  whose  lips  are  moving.  Were  the  screen  so  wide, 
however,  that  some  of  the  talking  figures  might  be  shown 
a  considerable  distance  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  course 
of  sound  the  illusion  would  be  lost. 

It  should  be  understood  however,  that  the  writer  of 
the  above  article,  has  for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  regarded 
the  apparatus  as  being  mechanically  driven,  not  caring  to 
enter  into  the  intricacies  of  the  electrical  features  of  the 
practical  machine,  a  detail  which  if  explained  at  this 
point  would  only  confuse  the  lay  reader. 

MANUAL  OR  DIAL  REGULATED  MACHINES. 

The  Cinephone  is  one  of  the  earliest  machines  of 
this  type,  having  been  introduced  as  early  as  1907-1908.  A 
quick  starting  phonograph  is  used,  equipped  with  a  small 
regulating  dial;  in  other  respects  this  machine  is  exactly 
similar  to  the  ordinary  graphophone.  A  similar  dial 
with  its  attendant  revolving  hand  is  shown  in  the  lower 
left  hand  corner  of  the  pictures  when  thrown  upon  the 
screen.  By  keeping  the  hand  of  the  dial  on  the  picture 
in  the  same  relative  position  as  the  dial  on  the  phono- 
graph, by  changing  the  speed  of  the  motors,  the  operator 
is  able  to  keep  the  machines  in  synchronism,  in  theory 
at  least.  Practically  this  system  is  not  particularly  suc- 
cessful since  it  depends  upon  the  operator,  who  is  alwavs 
at  least  ten  pictures  behind  with  his  control. 

GAUMONT   TALKING    PICTURES. 

The  "Chronophone"  produced  by  the  Gaumont  com- 
pany in  Paris,  is  perhaps  the  most  successful  of  all  talk- 
ing picture  devices, — except  possibly  the  Edison.  In 
nearly  all  cases  the  Gaumont  machine  is  run  in  connec- 
tion with  the  newly  devised  Gaumont  colored  pictures. 
The  apparatus  is  almost  entirely  automatic  in  its  opera- 
tion. 


236  MOTION    PICTURE    MAKING   AND   EXHIBITING 

Two  motors  are  provided,  one  for  the  phonograph 
and  one  for  the  projector,  both  being  of  approximately 
the  same  construction  and  power.  Direct  current  is  used. 

By  connecting  the  corresponding  section  windings 
of  the  two  armature  motors  together,  and  by  feeding  cur- 
rent through  a  single  commutator,  the  two  armatures 
are  held  in  synchronism  through  the  interchange  of  cur- 
rent waves,  which  after  passing  through  the  first  arma- 
ture, are  alternating  in  character. 

Should  there  be  patches  in  the  film,  or  other  defects 
causing  a  slip  between  the  phonograph  and  projector, 
the  machines  can  be  again  brought  into  synchronism  by 
means  of  a  special  set  of  differential  gears  driven  by  a 
small  motor.  A  contact  point  in  the  first  groove  of  the 
phonograph  record  starts  the  projector  as  soon  as  the  first 
sound  wave  is  reached. 

Should  either  the  pictures  or  the  record  be  too  far 
ahead,  the  operator  closes  the  switch  of  the  motor  that 
drives  the  differential  gear.  This  corrects  matters  al- 
most instantly,  moving  the  lever  in  one  direction  speeds 
the  pictures  and  slows  the  phonograph;  moving  it  in  the 
other  direction  slows  the  picture  and  speeds  -the  record. 

A  control  board  contains  a  starting  gear,  a  switch,  a 
speed  indicator,  and  a  two  way  commutator.  By  means 
of  these  devices,  the  operator  can  either  advance  or  re- 
tard the  phonograph  or  the  projector. 


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Thomas  H.   Russell.   A.  M.  M.  E.     288  pages. 

Moving  Picture  Making  and  Exhibiting.  By  John  B. 
Rathbun,  M.  E. 

Construction    of    Dwelling    Houses    and    Bungalows. 

By  U.  M.  Dustman.  Estimates  and  specifications  for 
modern  low  priced  homes.  Cloth  only. 

Dustman's  Book  of  Plans  and  Building  Construction. 

By  U.  M.  Dustman,  Licensed  Architect.  Plans,  speci- 
fications and  estimates  complete  of  150  buildings, 
240  large  9x13  pages.  Cloth  styles  only.  Price  $2.00. 


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